Comparison of NaCl-induced programmed cell death in the obligate halophyte Cakile maritima and the glycophyte Arabidopsis thaliana.

Salinity represents one of the most important constraints that adversely affect plants growth and productivity. In this study, we aimed at determining possible differences between salt tolerant and salt sensitive species in early salt stress response. To this purpose, we subjected suspension-cultured cells from the halophyte Cakile maritima and the glycophyte Arabidopsis thaliana, two Brassicaceae, to salt stress and compared their behavior. In both species we could observe a time and dose dependent programmed cell death requiring an active metabolism, a dysfunction of mitochondria and caspase-like activation although C. maritima cells appeared less sensitive than A. thaliana cells. This capacity to mitigate salt stress could be due to a higher ascorbate pool that could allow C. maritima reducing the oxidative stress generated in response to NaCl. It further appeared that a higher number of C. maritima cultured cells when compared to A. thaliana could efficiently manage the Na(+) accumulation into the cytoplasm through non selective cation channels allowing also reducing the ROS generation and the subsequent cell death.

Deciphering the dual effect of lipopolysaccharides from plant pathogenic Pectobacterium.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are a component of the outer cell surface of almost all Gram-negative bacteria and play an essential role for bacterial growth and survival. Lipopolysaccharides represent typical microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) molecules and have been reported to induce defense-related responses, including the expression of defense genes and the suppression of the hypersensitive response in plants. However, depending on their origin and the challenged plant, LPS were shown to have complex and different roles. In this study we showed that LPS from plant pathogens Pectobacterium atrosepticum and Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum induce common and different responses in A. thaliana cells when compared to those induced by LPS from non-phytopathogens Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among common responses to both types of LPS are the transcription of defense genes and their ability to limit of cell death induced by Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp carotovorum. However, the differential kinetics and amplitude in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation seemed to regulate defense gene transcription and be determinant to induce programmed cell death in response to LPS from the plant pathogenic Pectobacterium. These data suggest that different signaling pathways could be activated by LPS in A. thaliana cells.

Deciphering early events involved in hyperosmotic stress-induced programmed cell death in tobacco BY-2 cells.

Hyperosmotic stresses represent one of the major constraints that adversely affect plants growth, development, and productivity. In this study, the focus was on early responses to hyperosmotic stress- (NaCl and sorbitol) induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]cyt) increase, ion fluxes, and mitochondrial potential variations, and on their links in pathways leading to programmed cell death (PCD). By using BY-2 tobacco cells, it was shown that both NaCl- and sorbitol-induced PCD seemed to be dependent on superoxide anion (O2·(-)) generation by NADPH-oxidase. In the case of NaCl, an early influx of sodium through non-selective cation channels participates in the development of PCD through mitochondrial dysfunction and NADPH-oxidase-dependent O2·(-) generation. This supports the hypothesis of different pathways in NaCl- and sorbitol-induced cell death. Surprisingly, other shared early responses, such as [Ca(2+)]cyt increase and singlet oxygen production, do not seem to be involved in PCD.

Ozone-induced caspase-like activities are dependent on early ion channel regulations and ROS generation in Arabidopsis thaliana cells.

Using A. thaliana cultured cells; we recently reported new insights regarding the effect of acute O3 exposure. This consist in an oxidative dependent controlled cell death process involving cell shrinkage due to an early activation of anion channel (1) and a delayed activation of K(+) outward currents, but also to early events like Ca (2+) influx or singlet oxygen production possibly linked to mitochondrial dysfunction. Here we provide evidence that most of these early events act downstream of caspase-like activities as recently demonstrated for K(+) channel activation.

Post-transcriptional regulation of GORK channels by superoxide anion contributes to increases in outward-rectifying K⁺ currents.

· Ion fluxes are ubiquitous processes in the plant and animal kingdoms, controlled by fine-tuned regulations of ion channel activity. Yet the mechanism that cells employ to achieve the modification of ion homeostasis at the molecular level still remains unclear. This is especially true when it comes to the mechanisms that lead to cell death. · In this study, Arabidopsis thaliana cells were exposed to ozone (O3). Ion flux variations were analyzed by electrophysiological measurements and their transcriptional regulation by RT-PCR. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was quantified by luminescence techniques and caspase-like activities were investigated by laser confocal microscopy. · We highlighted the delayed activation of K(+) outward-rectifying currents after an O3 -induced oxidative stress leading to programmed cell death (PCD). Caspase-like activities are detected under O3 exposure and could be decreased by K(+) channel blocker. Molecular experiments revealed that the sustained activation of K(+) outward current could be the result of an unexpected O2 ·â» post-transcriptional regulation of the guard cell outward-rectifying K(+) (GORK) channels. · This consists of a likely new mode of regulating the processing of the GORK mRNA, in a ROS-dependent manner, to allow sustained K(+) effluxes during PCD. These data provide new mechanistic insights into K(+) channel regulation during an oxidative stress response.

A role for oxalic acid generation in ozone-induced signallization in Arabidopis cells.

Ozone (O(3) ) is an air pollutant with an impact increasingly important in our industrialized world. It affects human health and productivity in various crops. We provide the evidences that treatment of Arabidopsis thaliana with O(3) results in ascorbate-derived oxalic acid production. Using cultured cells of A. thaliana as a model, here we further showed that oxalic acid induces activation of anion channels that trigger depolarization of the cell, increase in cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration, generation of reactive oxygen species and cell death. We confirmed that O(3) reacts with ascorbate in the culture, thus resulting in production of oxalic acid and this could be part of the O(3) -induced signalling pathways that trigger programmed cell death.

Two different signaling pathways for thaxtomin A-induced cell death in Arabidopsis and tobacco BY2.

Thaxtomin A (TXT) is a phytotoxin produced by all plant-pathogenic Streptomyces scabies involved in the potato scab disease. Their pathogenicity was previously correlated with the production of TXT. Calcium is known to be an essential second messenger associated with pathogen-induced plant responses and cell death. We have effectively shown that in Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspensions, TXT induces an early short lived Ca(2+) influx which is involved in the cell death process and other TXT-induced responses. We extended our study to Nicotiana tabacum BY2 by monitoring cell death and changes in cytosolic calcium concentration on cells expressing the apoaequorine Ca(2+) reporter protein to compare the responses to TXT of the two model plants, tobacco and A. thaliana. Our investigations show that cell death in BY2 appeared to be dose dependent with a lag of sensitivity comparing to A. thaliana. Moreover, pathway leading to cell death in BY2 does not involve calcium signaling. Our results suggest that different pathways are engaged in A. thaliana and N. tabacum BY2 to achieve the same response to TXT.

Antagonistic action of harpin proteins: HrpWea from Erwinia amylovora suppresses HrpNea-induced cell death in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Harpins are proteins secreted by the type-three secretion system of phytopathogenic bacteria. They are known to induce a hypersensitive response (HR) in non-host plant leaf tissue. Erwinia amylovora, the fire blight pathogen of pear and apple trees, secretes two different harpins, HrpNea and HrpWea. In the present study, we showed that an Erwinia amylovora hrpWea mutant induces stronger electrolyte leakages in Arabidopsis thaliana foliar disks than the wild-type strain, thus suggesting that HrpWea could function as a HR negative modulator. We confirmed this result by using purified HrpWea and HrpNea. HrpWea has dual effects depending on its concentration. At 200 nM, HrpWea, like HrpNea, provoked the classical defense response--active oxygen species (AOS) production and cell death. However, at 0.2 nM, HrpWea inhibited cell death and AOS production provoked by HrpNea. HrpWea probably inhibits HrpNea-induced cell death by preventing anion channel inhibition, confirming that anion channel regulation is a determinant feature of the plant response to harpins. Collectively our data show that the HrpWea harpin can act antagonistically to the classical HrpNea harpin by suppressing plant defense mechanisms.

The HrpN(ea) harpin from Erwinia amylovora triggers differential responses on the nonhost Arabidopsis thaliana cells and on the host apple cells.

Erwinia amylovora is a gram-negative necrogenic bacterium causing fire blight of the Maloideae subfamily of Rosaceae such as apple and pear. It provokes progressive necrosis in aerial parts of susceptible host plants (compatible interaction) and a hypersensitive reaction (HR) when infiltrated in nonhost plants (incompatible interaction). The HrpN(ea) harpin is a type three secretion system effector secreted by E. amylovora. This protein is involved in pathogenicity and HR-eliciting capacity of E. amylovora. In the present study, we showed that, in nonhost Arabidopsis thaliana cells, purified HrpN(ea) induces cell death and H2O2 production, two nonhost resistance responses, but failed to induce such responses in host MM106 apple cells. Moreover, HrpN(ea) induced an increase in anion current in host MM106 apple cells, at the opposite of the decrease of anion current previously shown to be necessary to induce cell death in nonhost A. thaliana cells. These results suggest that HrpN(ea) induced different signaling pathways, which could account for early induced compatible or incompatible interaction development.

A putative role for fusaric acid in biocontrol of the parasitic angiosperm Orobanche ramosa.

Fusarium spp. are ubiquitous fungi found in soil worldwide as both pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains. The signals leading to disease or the absence of disease are poorly understood. We recently showed that fusaric acid (FA), a nonspecific toxin produced by most Fusarium spp., could elicit various plant defense responses at 100 nM without toxic effect. In this study, we checked for the effect of FA on root and root hairs, probable first site of contact between the fungi and the host. Large FA concentrations reduce root and root-hair growth and induce a rapid transient membrane hyperpolarization, followed by a large depolarization, due to the inhibition of H(+)-ATPase currents. Nanomolar concentrations of FA induced only an early transient membrane hyperpolarization of root hairs compatible with the induction of a signal transduction pathway. FA at 10(-7) M failed to induce salicylic acid- and jasmonic acid/ethylene-dependent defense-related genes but inhibited the germination of the angiosperm parasite Orobanche ramosa in contact of FA-pretreated Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. These data suggest that FA at nontoxic concentrations could activate signal transduction components necessary for plant-defense responses that could contribute to biocontrol activity of Fusarium spp.

Brassinosteroids regulate plasma membrane anion channels in addition to proton pumps during expansion of Arabidopsis thaliana cells.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are involved in numerous physiological processes associated with plant development and especially with cell expansion. Here we report that two BRs, 28-homobrassinolide (HBL) and its direct precursor 28-homocastasterone (HCS), promote cell expansion of Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cells. We also show that cell expansions induced by HBL and HCS are correlated with the amplitude of the plasma membrane hyperpolarization they elicited. HBL, which promoted the larger cell expansion, also provoked the larger hyperpolarization. We observed that membrane hyperpolarization and cell expansion were partially inhibited by the proton pump inhibitor erythrosin B, suggesting that proton pumps were not the only ion transport system modulated by the two BRs. We used a voltage clamp approach in order to find the other ion transport systems involved in the PM hyperpolarization elicited by HBL and HCS. Interestingly, while anion currents were inhibited by both HBL and HCS, outward rectifying K+ currents were increased by HBL but inhibited by HCS. The different electrophysiological behavior shown by HBL and HCS indicates that small changes in the BR skeleton might be responsible for changes in bioactivity.