The effect of background audio and audiovisual stimuli on students' autonomic responses during and after an experimental academic examination.

BACKGROUND: Due to the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown during the online-distant education period, certain students tended to combine their courses and homework with TV or social media news or other media content, such as classical music, including a wealth of audio and audiovisual stimuli. As the audio and audiovisual stimuli existing in a learning environment may affect students' autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses negatively, the present study aimed to monitor the impact of background TV, classical music, and silence on students' ANS activity represented by heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), blood volume amplitude (BVA), and skin conductance level (SCL) during and after an experimental academic examination. METHOD: Seventy-six students were randomly allocated to background TV, classical music, or silence groups. The experiment with repeated measures design consisted of four consecutive periods: baseline, anticipation, challenge, and recovery, lasting 4 min each. RESULTS: Within-subject analyses indicated significant HRV decrement only in the background TV group. Regardless of the experimental groups, HR and SCL increased while BVA decreased during the task. In addition, the between-subject analysis showed that the background TV group experienced significantly larger changes in HR and HRV parameters compared to the other experimental groups relative to their respective baseline measurements. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these results, we concluded that relative to classical music and silence, background TV, including audiovisual and verbal stimuli, extant in a learning environment might raise students' sympathetic activity. Further, classical music, without lyrics, may suppress the withdrawal of vagal activity and elevate the autonomic regulation capacity during the academic reading comprehension task. HRV is a more valid and reliable indicator of students' autonomic responses during a challenging academic task.

Characterization of the mechanical properties of human parietal bones preserved in modified larssen solution, formalin and as fresh frozen.

PURPOSE: Although the fresh frozen (FF) cadaver is preferred for surgical applications, it is limited due to short usage time, unsuitable for reuse and the risk of infection. Due to its limited use, FF cadavers, which are covered by import in countries with insufficient body donation cause low-cost effectiveness. With the increase of real human tissue specimen necessities for surgical training, long-term preservation of the cadavers is crucial due to changes in mechanical properties. Therefore, studies on embalming solutions have increased in recent years. METHODS: We quantify the biomechanical properties of human parietal bones preserved via modified larssen solution (MLS) and compare the results with the specimens preserved as FF and fixed with 10% formalin-based solution (F10). The rectangular samples of 24 parietal bones of male individuals were resected from MLS-embalmed, F10-embalmed and FF cadavers to form three groups each containing eight samples. These specimens were tested longitudinally to identify mechanical properties. RESULTS: The tensile test results showed that there is not a significant difference between the groups in terms of stiffness, elastic modulus, strain at ultimate stress, failure strain and effective plastic strain. However, the yield stress, ultimate stress, yield strain, failure stress and total energy and post-yield properties are significantly lower in F10 than MLS and FF groups. CONCLUSION: It is observed that the mechanical properties of MLS preserved and FF parietal bones have almost similar properties. Thus, it can be concluded that MLS is a suitable fixative solution for bone studies and bone-related surgical anatomy training applications.

The Short-Term Effect of Occupational Levels of 50 Hz Electromagnetic Field on Human Heart Rate Variability.

Previous studies have indicated that there is no consensus on the effects of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic (ELF-EMF) exposure on the cardiovascular system. This study aimed to explore the short-term effect of ELF-EMF exposure on heart rate (HR) and HR variability (HRV). The sample consisted of 34 healthy males aged 18-27 years. The participants were randomly assigned to the EMF (n = 17) or the Sham group (n = 17). We employed a double-blind repeated-measures design consisting of three 5 min experimental periods. The chest region of each individual in the EMF group was exposed to 50 Hz, 28 µT, linear polarized, continuous EMF during the EMF exposure period. HR and HRV data were recorded continuously by using a photoplethysmography sensor. Within-subject statistical analysis indicated a significant HR deceleration in both the EMF and Sham groups. However, the standard deviation of the NN intervals (SDNN), root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), low-frequency (LF), and high-frequency (HF) powers increased only in the EMF group and remained stable in the Sham group. We also compared the same HRV indices measured during the EMF and Sham periods between the two experimental groups. The between-subject analysis results demonstrated significantly higher SDNN, RMSSD, LF, and HF values in the EMF group than in the Sham group. The LF/HF ratio did not change significantly within and between groups. On the basis of these results, we concluded that short-term exposure of the chest region to ELF-EMF could potentially enhance parasympathetic predominance during the resting condition. Bioelectromagnetics. 2021;42:60-75. © 2020 Bioelectromagnetics Society.

The Effects of Red Versus Blue Lights and Neuroticism on Voluntary Biceps Brachii Muscle Contraction.

This study investigated the effects of red and blue monochromatic lights and neuroticism on athletes' maximal isometric voluntary contraction (iMVC) level of the biceps brachii muscle. During elbow flexion, we measured iMVCs under a white light (control) condition and under red and blue light conditions. Under red light (vs. white and blue), participants demonstrated a greater iMVC level. Further, based on a median split of the athletes' scores on Tatar's Five Factor Personality Inventory, high and low neuroticism groups showed no red light differences, while, in the blue light condition, participants high in neuroticism increased the iMVC level by 4.04% and those low in neuroticism decreased iMVC level by 6.31%. Thus, the effect of colored light on athletes' motor output varied with individual personality differences in neuroticism.

The Effects of Positive and Negative Feedback on Maximal Voluntary Contraction Level of the Biceps Brachii Muscle: Moderating Roles of Gender and Conscientiousness.

We investigated the effect of positive and negative feedback on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the biceps brachii muscle and explored the mediating effects of gender and conscientiousness. During elbow flexion, MVCs were measured in positive, negative, and no-feedback conditions. Participants were divided into high- and low-conscientiousness groups based on the median split of their scores on Tatar's five-factor personality inventory. Considering all participants 46 college student athletes (21 female, 28 male), positive feedback led to a greater MVC percentage change (-5.76%) than did negative feedback (2.2%). MVC percentage change in the positive feedback condition differed significantly by gender, but the negative feedback condition did not. Thus, positive feedback increased female athletes' MVC level by 3.49%, but decreased male athletes' MVC level by 15.6%. For conscientiousness, MVC percentage change in the positive feedback condition did not differ according to high and low conscientiousness. However, conscientiousness interacted with gender in the positive feedback condition, increasing MVC in high-conscientiousness female athletes and decreasing MVC in low-conscientiousness female athletes. Positive feedback decreased MVC in both high- and low-conscientiousness male athletes.

Effect of taurine on rat Achilles tendon healing.

Taurine has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics. We have introduced taurine into a tendon-healing model to evaluate its effects on tendon healing and adhesion formation. Two groups of 16 rats underwent diversion and repair of the Achilles tendon. One group received a taurine injection (200 mg/ml) at the repair site, while the other group received 1 ml of saline. Specimens were harvested at 6 weeks and underwent biomechanical and histological evaluation. No tendon ruptured. Average maximum load was significantly greater in the taurine-applied group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). Similarly, average energy uptake was significantly higher in the taurine-applied group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). We observed no significant differences in stiffness in both groups (p > 0.05). After histological assessment, we found that fibroblast proliferation, edema, and inflammation statistically decreased in the treatment group (p < 0.05). These findings could indicate greater tendon strength with less adhesion formation, and taurine may have an effect on adhesion formation.

Double discharges in human soleus muscle.

Double discharges (doublets) were recorded from human soleus (SOL), where they have never been reported before. The data analyzed in this study were collected from 12 healthy volunteers. The subjects were recruited for other studies, concerning: (1) estimation of motoneurons' (MNs) afterhyperpolarization (AHP) duration and (2) analysis of motor unit responses to nerve stimulation, and were not trained to voluntarily evoke doublets. The majority of intradoublet intervals fell into the commonly accepted range 2-20 ms. However, two SOL MNs from one presented exceptional doublets of intradoublet interval about 37 ms. This interval was virtually identical with the interval between second and third discharge in the few triplets recorded from another subject. It is hypothesized that triplets are generated by the delayed depolarization with the second narrow hump, which is the same as the hump responsible for exceptional doublets.

The effects of verbal encouragement and conscientiousness on maximal voluntary contraction of the triceps surae muscle in elite athletes.

We investigated the effect of verbal encouragement on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) level of the triceps surae muscle group. Our secondary focus was to examine whether the effect of verbal encouragement on MVC level varies as a result of conscientiousness. While the participants performed plantar flexion, MVCs of the triceps surae muscle group were measured using rectified and smoothed surface electromyography (rsEMG) during the absence and presence of verbal encouragement. Participants completed questions from the Five Factor Personality Inventory concerning conscientiousness and were divided into high- and low-conscientiousness groups according to a median split. The sample included 30 female and 53 male elite athletes. In the entire cohort, there was no significant difference in MVCs with and without verbal encouragement. When the sample was partitioned by conscientiousness scores, verbal encouragement led to a significant increase in MVC in the low-conscientiousness group, whereas verbal encouragement led to a non-significant decrease in MVC in the high-conscientiousness group. Percentage change in MVC across experimental conditions was significantly different between the groups, with a 9.72% increase during verbal encouragement of the low-conscientiousness group, and a 2.47% decrease during verbal encouragement of the high-conscientiousness group.

Compound group I excitatory input is differentially distributed to human soleus motoneurons.

OBJECTIVE: We studied whether the distribution of synaptic input from compound group I afferents onto the various-sized motoneurons in the human soleus muscle supports the size principle. METHODS: The subject lay prone on a physiotherapy table and electrical stimuli were delivered to the tibial nerve. The recordings were taken with surface electromyography (SEMG) and single motor unit (SMU) potentials. The relative sizes of SMUs were estimated using four different methods. After identifying the relative size of each SMU of the pair, normalised size of the H-reflex was determined using the extra spike per trigger (ESPT) method. RESULTS: In total 33 SMU pairs were studied to compare results obtained in each pair. It was found that, although the stimulus intensity was identical for each pair, the ESPT values were statistically larger in the bigger SMUs compared with the relatively smaller SMUs (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that, within the limits of this study, compound group I excitatory input to soleus motoneurons in human subjects does not support the size principle which governs the recruitment order of motoneurons in the reduced animal preparations. SIGNIFICANCE: This study illustrates the importance of performing human experiments to confirm or reject principles obtained using reduced animal preparations.

Psychophysiological responses to competition and the big five personality traits.

This study examines the relationship between psychophysiological arousal, cognitive anxiety, and personality traits in young taekwondo athletes. A total of 20 male and 10 female taekwondo athletes (mean age = 18.6 years; ± 1.8) volunteered for the study. The Five Factor Personality Inventory and the state scale of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used to measure personality and cognitive state anxiety. Electrodermal activity (EDA) was measured twice, one day and approximately one hour prior to the competition, to determine psychophysiological arousal. Descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlations, and stepwise regression were used to analyze the data. Several "Big Five" facets were related to the EDA delta scores that were measured both one day and one hour before the competition. Two stepwise regressions were conducted to examine whether personality traits could significantly predict both EDA delta scores. The final model, containing only neuroticism from the Big Five factors, can significantly explain the variations in the EDA delta scores measured one day before the competition. Agreeableness can significantly explain variations in the EDA delta scores measured one hour before the competition. No relationship was found between cognitive anxiety and the EDA delta scores measured one hour before the competition. In conclusion, personality traits, especially agreeableness and neuroticism, might be useful in understanding arousal responses to competition.

Responses of human soleus motor units to low-threshold stimulation of the tibial nerve.

The peristimulus frequencygram (PSF) has recently been shown to illustrate postsynaptic potentials of motoneurones much more reliably than the peristimulus time histogram (PSTH). The aim of this investigation was to examine the profile of the postsynaptic potential (PSP) in soleus motoneurones in response to an H-reflex with and without accompanying M waves of different magnitude by using PSTH and PSF profiles of single motor units. Nine men and five women healthy subjects participated in this study. Electrical stimuli were delivered to the tibial nerve in the popliteal fossa. The reflex response of the soleus muscle was recorded using both surface electromyogram and single motor unit potentials. The PSTH analysis demonstrated that there were four different synaptic events following low-intensity stimulation of the tibial nerve: primary enhancement in firing probability (H-reflex or E1), primary reduction in firing probability (primary silent period or SP1), secondary reduction in firing probability (secondary silent period or SP2), and secondary enhancement in firing probability (E2). On the other hand, the PSF analysis indicated only two reflex responses, long-lasting enhancement in discharge rate including the H-reflex (LLE) and long-lasting decrease in discharge rate (LLD). The results of the two analyses methods are compared and contrasted. While the PSTH demonstrated that there was a silent period (SP1) immediately following the H-reflex, the PSF indicated an increase in discharge rate during the same period. The PSF also indicated that, during SP2 and E2, the discharge rate actually decreased (LLD). It was therefore suggested that LLD involved activation of several inhibitory pathways including the autogenic inhibition of units via the Golgi tendon organs. It was concluded that the PSF could indicate the details of the postsynaptic potentials and is very useful for bringing out previously unknown effects of electrical stimulation of muscle nerves.

Synaptic potentials contributing to reflex inhibition in gastrocnemius following tendon electrical stimulation.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the synaptic potentials underlying reflex inhibition in gastrocnemius following electrical stimulation of the Achilles tendon using single motor unit recordings. METHODS: Surface electromyography (SEMG) and single motor unit (SMU) action potentials were recorded from the medial head of left gastrocnemius muscle in eight healthy human subjects. The left Achilles tendon was stimulated electrically while subjects maintained a low contraction level sufficient to record one or two motor units. SMU responses were analysed using peri-stimulus time histogram (PSTH) and peri-stimulus frequencygram (PSF) techniques and compared with SEMG results. RESULTS: A total of 22 SMU experiments were completed. In all trials, a large reflex inhibition (I1) was observed in both SEMG and PSTH followed by a later inhibition (I2). In 50% of trials, SEMG and PSTH showed that both I1 and I2 were followed by excitation (E1 and E2, respectively). PSF analysis showed only a prolonged reduction in SMU discharge rate. This inhibition had a latency of 38 ms and duration of 13 ms, extending into the E1 period in 14 units and more than 200 ms extending into the E2 period in six units. CONCLUSIONS: PSF data suggest that tendon electrical stimulation results in a long-lasting inhibition, most likely through the autogenic inhibitory reflex pathway mediated by group I tendon afferents. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings emphasise the importance of using both probability (SEMG, PSTH) and frequency (PSF) based techniques in error free estimation of synaptic potentials.

A study of synaptic connection between low threshold afferent fibres in common peroneal nerve and motoneurones in human tibialis anterior.

We have induced H-reflex responses in human tibialis anterior motor units and analysed the results using the classical technique, peristimulus time histogram (PSTH), and a new technique, peristimulus frequencygram (PSF). The PSF has recently been shown to be more reliable than the PSTH for indicating the synaptic connections on motoneurones, and therefore we wished to examine the differences between the two analysis methods. Experiments were conducted on eleven healthy subjects (7 males and 4 females) who did not have any known neurological disorder. The subject sat comfortably on a dental chair and the common peroneal nerve was stimulated. In each experiment, about 600 electrical stimuli were applied to the nerve randomly between 1 and 2 s. The recordings were taken with both by surface electromyogram (SEMG) and as single motor unit potentials. We found that, when a stimulus induces an H-reflex, it also generates a period of reduced activity (silent period) and a long latency excitation in the PSTH. However, the PSF records in general do not match the indications of the PSTH records. For example, when the PSTH indicated existence of a silent period immediately following the H-reflex response, the discharge rate of the unit was in fact higher than the prestimulus rate. On the contrary, during the PSTH illustrated long latency excitatory response, the discharge rate was lower than the prestimulus rate. Our findings suggest that PSF gives significantly different results compared with the PSTH in determining the synaptic connection of the low threshold muscle afferents to the motoneurones. While PSTH indicated that there was a silent period immediately after the H-reflex, the PSF demonstrated that the silent period was actually a continuation of the net excitatory effect and not a genuine inhibition since the small number of action potentials occured during this period displayed higher discharge rates than the prestimulus level. Furthermore, the long latency excitation, as it was indicated in the PSTH; was actually a net inhibitory effect since the large number of spikes that occured during that period had lower discharge rates than the prestimulus average. In the lights of the recent brain slice findings and completely different results obtained using the two analysis techniques, we suggest that the PSF analysis should be used along with the PSTH to illustrate the net synaptic connection between peripheral receptors and motoneurones in the human nervous system.