Maternal protein malnutrition: effects on prostate development and adult disease.

Well-controlled intrauterine development is an essential condition for many aspects of normal adult physiology and health. This process is disrupted by poor maternal nutrition status during pregnancy. Indeed, physiological adaptations occur in the fetus to ensure nutrient supply to the most vital organs at the expense of the others, leading to irreversible consequences in tissue formation and differentiation. Evidence indicates that maternal undernutrition in early life promotes changes in key hormones, such as glucocorticoids, growth hormones, insulin-like growth factors, estrogens and androgens, during fetal development. These alterations can directly or indirectly affect hormone release, hormone receptor expression/distribution, cellular function or tissue organization, and impair tissue growth, differentiation and maturation to exert profound long-term effects on the offspring. Within the male reproductive system, maternal protein malnutrition alters development, structure, and function of the gonads, testes and prostate gland. Consequently, these changes impair the reproductive capacity of the male offspring. Further, permanent alterations in the prostate gland occur at the molecular and cellular level and thereby affect the onset of late life diseases such as prostatitis, hyperplasia and even prostate cancer. This review assembles current thoughts on the concepts and mechanisms behind the developmental origins of health and disease as they relate to protein malnutrition, and highlights the effects of maternal protein malnutrition on rat prostate development and homeostasis. Such insights on developmental trajectories of adult-onset prostate disease may help provide a foundation for future studies in this field.

The Financial Costs, Behaviour and Psychology of Obesity: A One Health Analysis.

People who are overweight or have obesity are estimated to comprise 30% of the global population and up to 59% of companion dogs and cats are estimated to be above their optimal body weight. The prevalence of human and companion obesity is increasing. The direct and indirect costs of obesity and associated comorbidities are significant for human and veterinary healthcare. There are numerous similarities between obesity in people and companion animals, likely related to the shared environmental and lifestyle elements of this multifactorial disease. While the study of human obesity is relatively robust, research conducted in pets is generally limited to small studies, studies with cross-sectional designs or reports that have yet to be replicated. Greater understanding of human obesity may elucidate some of the factors driving the more recent rise in pet obesity. In particular, there are overlapping features of obesity in children and pets that are, in part, related to dependency on their 'parents' for care and feeding. When feeding is used in a coercive and controlling fashion, it may lead to undesirable feeding behaviour and increase the risk for obesity. A 'responsive parenting' intervention teaches parents to respond appropriately to hunger-satiety cues and to recognize and respond to others' distress. Such interventions may impact on childhood overweight and obesity and have the potential to be adapted for use with companion animals. Social behaviour towards people with obesity or owners of pets with obesity is often driven by beliefs about the cause of the obesity. Educating healthcare professionals and the public about the multifactorial nature of this complex disease process is a fundamental step in reducing the bias and stigma associated with obesity. Children living in low-income households have particularly high rates of obesity and as household income falls, rates of obesity also rise in pets and their owners. There are risk regulators (i.e. dynamic components of interconnected systems that influence obesity-related behaviours) and internal factors (i.e. biological determinants of obesity) that may influence the development of both childhood and pet obesity, and poverty may intersect with these variables to exacerbate obesity in low-income environments. This review discusses the costs, behaviours and psychology related to obesity in people and pets, and also proposes potential techniques that can be considered for prevention and treatment of this disease in pets. A 'One Health' approach to obesity suggests that an understanding of human obesity may elucidate some of the factors driving the more recent rise in pet obesity.

Dietary patterns in infancy are associated with child diet and weight outcomes at 6 years.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether patterns of dietary exposures at 9 months are associated with child diet and weight at 6 years. METHODS: Data for this study were from the Infant Feeding Practices Study II and Year 6 Follow-Up Studies. All data were self-reported monthly. Results of a previous latent class analysis revealed five dietary patterns varying in milk and solid food intake. These five infant dietary patterns were used in the current study to predict child diet and weight outcomes at 6 years, while controlling for confounding variables. RESULTS: Infants with dietary patterns higher in fruit and vegetable intake at 9 months had higher fruit and vegetable intake at 6 years. Similarly, infants with the dietary pattern characterized by foods high in energy density (that is, French Fries and sweet desserts) continued to have higher consumption of these foods at 6 years, and had a higher prevalence of overweight at 6 years (43%) compared with the other classes. Formula-fed infants had higher sugar-sweetened beverage intake and fewer met the dietary guidelines for fruit and vegetable intake at 6 years than breastfed infants, controlling for factors such as income. CONCLUSIONS: Early decisions about milk-feeding, and the types of solid foods offered in infancy can foreshadow dietary patterns and obesity risk later in childhood. Infants who were offered energy-dense foods had higher intake of these foods at 6 years of age.

Alternatives to restrictive feeding practices to promote self-regulation in childhood: a developmental perspective.

Intake of energy-dense snack foods is high among US children. Although the use of restrictive feeding practices has been shown to be counterproductive, there is very limited evidence for effective alternatives to restriction that help children moderate their intake of these foods and that facilitate the development of self-regulation in childhood. The developmental literature on parenting and child outcomes may provide insights into alternatives to restrictive feeding practices. This review paper uses a model of parental control from the child development and parenting literatures to (i) operationally define restrictive feeding practices; (ii) summarize current evidence for antecedents and effects of parental restriction use on children's eating behaviours and weight status, and (iii) highlight alternative feeding practices that may facilitate the development of children's self-regulation and moderate children's intake of palatable snack foods. We also discuss recent empirical evidence highlighting the role of child temperament and food motivation related behaviours as factors that prompt parents to use restrictive feeding practices and, yet, may increase children's dysregulated intake of forbidden foods.

Postprandial peptide YY is lower in young college-aged women with high dietary cognitive restraint.

Acylated ghrelin and peptide YY (PYY3-36) are involved in appetite-regulation and energy homeostasis. These gastrointestinal hormones provide peripheral signals to the central nervous system to regulate appetite and short term food intake, and interact with leptin and insulin to regulate energy balance. Dietary restraint is an eating behavior phenotype that manifests as a conscious cognitive control of food intake in order to achieve or sustain a desired body weight. The purpose of the current study was to determine if college-aged women (18 to 25 years) with different eating behavior phenotypes, i.e., high vs normal dietary restraint, differ with respect to circulating concentrations of gastrointestinal hormones during and following a test meal. We hypothesized that women with high dietary cognitive restraint [High CR (score ≥ 13, n=13)] would have elevated active ghrelin and PYY3-36 concentrations after a test meal compared to women with normal dietary cognitive restraint [Normal CR (score < 13, n=30)]. Gastrointestinal hormones were assessed before (-15 and 0 min) and after (10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 min) the consumption of a mixed composition meal (5.0 kcal per kg/body weight). In contrast to our hypothesis, mean PYY3-36 concentrations (p=0.042), peak PYY3-36 concentrations (p=0.047), and PYY3-36 area under the curve (p=0.035) were lower in the High CR group compared to the Normal CR group after controlling for body mass index. No group differences were observed with respect to acylated ghrelin before or after the meal. In conclusion, PYY3-36 concentrations were suppressed in the women with High CR compared to the women with Normal CR. While the current study is cross-sectional and cause/effect of high dietary restraint and suppressed PYY3-36 concentrations cannot be determined, we speculate that these women with high cognitive restraint may be prone to weight gain or weight re-gain related to the suppressed circulating PYY after a meal. Further investigations need to explore the relationship between dietary cognitive restraint, circulating PYY, and weight gain.

External influences on children's self-served portions at meals.

OBJECTIVE: Large portions promote intake among children, but little is known about the external influences of the eating environment on children's self-selected portion sizes. This research experimentally tested effects of the amount of entree available and serving spoon size on children's self-served entree portions and intakes at dinner meals. A secondary objective was to identify child and family predictors of self-served entree portion sizes. DESIGN: A 2 × 2 within-subjects design was used, in which the amount of a pasta entree available for self-serving (275 vs 550 g) and the serving spoon size (teaspoon vs tablespoon) were systematically varied. The serving bowl size and portion sizes of all other foods offered were held constant across conditions. Conditions were spaced 1 week apart and randomly assigned. Weighed self-served entree portions and food intakes as well as demographics, maternal feeding styles and child/maternal anthropometrics were measured. SUBJECTS: Participants were 60 ethnically diverse children aged 4-6 years and their mothers. RESULTS: Mixed models revealed that children served themselves 40% more entree when the amount available was doubled (P<0.0001) and 13% more when the serving spoon size was tripled (P<0.05). Serving spoon size and the amount of entree available indirectly influenced children's intake, with larger self-served portion sizes related to greater entree intakes (P<0.0001). Greater self-served portions and energy intakes at the meal were seen among those children whose mothers reported indulgent or authoritarian feeding styles (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: Children's self-served portion sizes at meals are influenced by size-related facets of the eating environment and reflect maternal feeding styles.

Does maternal feeding restriction lead to childhood obesity in a prospective cohort study?

BACKGROUND: Some studies show that greater parental control over children's eating habits predicts later obesity, but it is unclear whether parents are reacting to infants who are already overweight. OBJECTIVE: To examine the longitudinal association between maternal feeding restriction at age 1 and body mass index (BMI) at age 3 and the extent to which the association is explained by weight for length (WFL) at age 1. METHODS: We studied 837 mother-infant pairs from a prospective cohort study. The main exposure was maternal feeding restriction at age 1, defined as agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following question: "I have to be careful not to feed my child too much." We ran multivariable linear regression models before and after adjusting for WFL at age 1. All models were adjusted for parental and child sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: 100 (12.0%) mothers reported feeding restriction at age 1. Mean (SD) WFL z-score at age 1 was 0.32 (1.01), and BMI z-score at age 3 was 0.43 (1.01). Maternal feeding restriction at age 1 was associated with higher BMI z-score at age 3 before (ß 0.26 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.48)) but not after (ß 0.00 (95% CI -0.17 to 0.18)) adjusting for WFL z-score at age 1. Each unit of WFL z-score at age 1 was associated with an increment of 0.57 BMI z-score units at age 3 (95% CI 0.51 to 0.62). CONCLUSIONS: We found that maternal feeding restriction was associated with children having a higher BMI at age 3 before, but not after, adjusting for WFL at age 1. One potential reason may be that parents restrict the food intake of infants who are already overweight.

Parental influence on children's early eating environments and obesity risk: implications for prevention.

Most childhood obesity prevention efforts have focused on school-age children and adolescents and have had limited success. We argue that the first years of life, including the prenatal period, the postnatal suckling period and the transition to the modified adult diet, may provide opportunities for preventive interventions. These early periods are characterized by high plasticity and rapid transitions, and parents have a high degree of control over children's environments and experiences. Observational and experimental evidence reveal persistent effects of early environments on eating behavior and obesity risk, suggesting that interventions should be tested during these early periods. The central task parents have in early development points to their potential as key targets and agents of change in early preventive interventions. In this paper, we review evidence of early environmental effects on children's eating and obesity risk, highlighting ways that parental feeding practices and parents' own behaviors impact these outcomes and calling for further experimental research to elucidate whether these factors are indeed promising targets for childhood obesity preventive interventions.

Preventing childhood obesity: what works?

Rates of overweight in North American children and adolescents have increased dramatically since the 1970s. Childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions and calls for prevention and treatment programs to reverse this trend have been made. However, the evidence base needed for effective action is still incomplete, especially for childhood obesity prevention programs. This paper focuses on primary prevention of childhood obesity and has three aims: (1) to briefly describe current primary prevention approaches for childhood obesity and the evidence for their impact; (2) to elucidate promising, but untested intervention strategies using an ecological framework and evidence from experimental and epidemiological research on factors influencing children's eating and weight status; and (3) to introduce a multiphase strategy for screening intervention components and building and evaluating potent interventions for childhood obesity. Most childhood obesity prevention programs have focused on school-aged children and have had little success. We suggest that, given these findings, prevention efforts should be expanded to explore other contexts in which children live as possible settings for intervention efforts, including the family and childcare settings. Given that 25% of preschool children are already overweight, intervening with children before school entry should be a priority. A review of experimental research on the developing controls of food intake in infancy and childhood suggests possible intervention strategies, focusing on parenting and aspects of the feeding environment. Epidemiological findings point to even earlier modifiable risk factors, including gestational weight gain, maternal prepregnancy weight, and formula feeding. However, the potential impact of altering these risk factors remains to be evaluated. In response to this problem, we suggest a new, multiphase method for accomplishing this, including screening intervention components, refining intervention designs and confirming component efficacy to build and evaluate potent, optimized interventions.

Obstetric skills drills: evaluation of teaching methods.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the most effective method of delivering training to staff on the management of an obstetric emergency. SUBJECTS: The research was conducted in a District General Hospital in the UK, delivering approximately 3500 women per year. Thirty-six staff, comprising of junior and senior medical and midwifery staff were included as research subjects. Each of the staff members were put into one of six multi-professional teams. Effectively, this gave six teams, each comprising of six members. METHOD: Three teaching methods were employed. Lecture based teaching (LBT), simulation based teaching (SBT) or a combination of these two (LAS). Each team of staff were randomly allocated to undertake a full day of training in the management of Post Partum Haemorrhage utilising one of these three teaching methods. Team knowledge and performance were assessed pre-training, post training and at three months later. In addition to this assessment of knowledge and performance, qualitative semi-structured interviews were carried out with 50% of the original cohort one year after the training, to explore anxiety, confidence, communication, knowledge retention, enjoyment and transferable skills. RESULTS: All teams improved in their performance and knowledge. The teams taught using simulation only (SBT) were the only group to demonstrate sustained improvement in clinical management of the case, confidence, communication skills and knowledge. However, the study did not have enough power to reach statistical significance. The SBT group reported transferable skills and less anxiety in subsequent emergencies. SBT and LAS reported improved multidisciplinary communication. Although tiring, the SBT was enjoyed the most. CONCLUSION: Obstetrics is a high risk speciality, in which emergencies are to some extent, inevitable. Training staff to manage these emergencies is a fundamental principal of risk management. Traditional risk management strategies based on incident reporting and event analysis are reactive and not always effective. Simulation based training is an appropriate proactive approach to reducing errors and risk in obstetrics, improving teamwork and communication, whilst giving the student a multiplicity of transferable skills to improve their performance.

Neurodistribution of androgen receptor immunoreactivity in the male frog, Rana esculenta.

Sexual behavior in vertebrates depends on the cyclic release of steroids and their binding to the brain receptors. Previously, we demonstrated the presence of specific binding of (3)H-testosterone and staining with PG-21 in the brain of the adult male frog, Rana esculenta. Here, we report our further receptor characterization using an anti-androgen receptor antiserum, PG-21, and the androgen site of action in frog brain. Nuclei, which contained cells labeled for the androgen receptor (AR), were mainly identified in the olfactory bulbs, preoptic-septal region, infundibulum, amygdala, thalamus, tectum, torus semicircularis, and medulla. The neuroanatomical AR staining appears similar to that in other lower vertebrates.

Maternal weight status modulates the effects of restriction on daughters' eating and weight.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of overweight and normal-weight mothers' restriction in child feeding on daughters' eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) and body mass index (BMI) change from age 5 to age 9 y. DESIGN: Longitudinal study of the health and development of young girls. SUBJECTS: A total of 91 overweight and 80 normal-weight mothers and their daughters, assessed when daughters were ages 5, 7, and 9 y. MEASUREMENTS: Measures included maternal restriction of daughters' intake at age 5 y, and daughters' EAH and BMI change from age 5 to 9 y. RESULTS: There were no overall differences in the level of restriction that overweight and normal-weight mothers used. However, overweight mothers' restrictive feeding practices when daughters were age 5 y predicted daughters' EAH over time, and higher EAH scores were associated with greater BMI change from age 5 to 9 y. These relationships did not hold for daughters of normal-weight mothers. CONCLUSION: More adverse effects of restriction on daughters' EAH, and links between EAH and BMI change were only noted among daughters of overweight mothers. These findings highlight the need for a better understanding of factors that contribute to within-group variation in eating behavior and weight status.

Abnormal morphology of the penis in male rats exposed neonatally to diethylstilbestrol is associated with altered profile of estrogen receptor-alpha protein, but not of androgen receptor protein: a developmental and immunocytochemical study.

Objectives of the study were to determine developmental changes in morphology and expression of androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor (ER)alpha in the body of the rat penis exposed neonatally to diethylstilbestrol (DES). Male pups received DES at a dose of 10 microg per rat on alternate days from Postnatal Day 2 to Postnatal Day 12. Controls received olive oil vehicle only. Tissue samples were collected on Days 18 (prepuberty), 41 (puberty), and 120 (adult) of age. DES-induced abnormalities were evident at 18 days of age and included smaller, lighter, and thinner penis, loss of cavernous spaces and associated smooth muscle cells, and increased deposition of fat cells in the corpora cavernosa penis. Fat cells virtually filled the entire area of the corpora cavernosa at puberty and adulthood. Plasma testosterone (T) was reduced to an undetectable level, while LH was unaltered in all treated groups. AR-positive cells were ubiquitous and their profile (incidence and staining intensity) did not differ between control and treated rats of the respective age groups. Conversely, ERalpha-positive cells were limited to the stroma of corpus spongiosus in all age groups of both control and treated rats, but the expression in treated rats at 18 days was up-regulated in stromal cells of corpora cavernosa, coincident with the presence of morphological abnormalities. Hence, this study reports for the first time DES-induced developmental, morphological abnormalities in the body of the penis and suggests that these abnormalities may have resulted from decreased T and/or overexpression of ERalpha.

Structural insights into the evolution of the pantothenate-biosynthesis pathway.

Pantothenate is synthesized in bacteria, fungi and plants, and as vitamin B5 is a dietary requirement in animals. The three-dimensional structures of the four Escherichia coli enzymes involved in the production of pantothenate have been determined. We describe the use of comparative analyses of the sequences and structures to identify distant homologues of the four enzymes in an attempt to understand the evolution of the pathway. We conclude that it is likely to have evolved via a patchwork mechanism, whereby the individual enzymes were recruited separately.

Molecular methods for the assessment of bacterial viability.

A significant number of pathogenic microorganisms can be found in environmental reservoirs (air, water, soil). It is important to assess the viability status of these organisms to determine whether they pose a threat to public health. Classical methods for determining viability are time consuming. Hence, molecular methods have been developed to address this problem. Molecular methods offer speed, sensitivity and specificity. Both DNA and RNA have been analysed using molecular amplification methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA). However, due to the variable persistence of nucleic acids in cells post-death, the correlation between presence of DNA and RNA and viability is not clear-cut. Similarly, the choice of target and sensitivity of the method can significantly affect the validity of the viability assay. This review assesses the molecular methods currently available and evaluates their ability to assess cell viability with emphasis on environmental pathogens.

Obesigenic families: parents' physical activity and dietary intake patterns predict girls' risk of overweight.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether obesigenic families can be identified based on mothers' and fathers' dietary and activity patterns. METHODS: A total of 197 girls and their parents were assessed when girls were 5 y old; 192 families were reassessed when girls were 7 y old. Measures of parents' physical activity and dietary intake were obtained and entered into a cluster analysis to assess whether distinct family clusters could be identified. Girls' skinfold thickness and body mass index (BMI) were also assessed and were used to examine the predictive validity of the clusters. RESULTS: Obesigenic and a non-obesigenic family clusters were identified. Mothers and fathers in the obesigenic cluster reported high levels of dietary intake and low levels of physical activity, while mothers and fathers in the non-obesigenic cluster reported low levels of dietary intake and high levels of activity. Girls from families in the obesigenic cluster had significantly higher BMI and skinfold thickness values at age 7 and showed significantly greater increases in BMI and skinfold thickness from ages 5 to 7 y than girls from non-obesigenic families; differences were reduced but not eliminated after controlling for parents' BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Obesigenic families, defined in terms of parents' activity and dietary patterns, can be used predict children's risk of obesity.

Diet quality, nutrient intake, weight status, and feeding environments of girls meeting or exceeding the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations for total dietary fat.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children consume no more than 30% but no less than 20% of energy as dietary fat intake, and this recommendation is accompanied by suggestions that fat calories should be replaced by eating more grain products, fruits, vegetables, low fat dairy products, beans, lean meat, poultry, fish, and other protein rich foods. In comparing diets of girls meeting this AAP recommendation with girls who consumed diets higher in fat, we noted that girls meeting recommendations had diets that came closer to meeting other dietary recommendations for several food groups and had higher intake of several key micronutrients. Dietary fat was also associated with body fat and weight status. Children's fat intake was also related to mothers' dietary fat intake, and nutrient intake patterns were similar for mothers and daughters. Finally, mothers of girls consuming higher fat diets reported using more restriction and pressure to eat in feeding their daughters. These findings provide additional support for the AAP recommendation to limit total dietary fat. Findings reveal that mothers' use of controlling feeding practices are not effective in fostering healthier diets among children, and that mothers' own eating may be more influential than their attempts to control children's intake.

Interpersonal predictors of dieting practices among married couples.

The relations between couples' marital quality and dieting behavior were examined. One-hundred eighty-seven married couples' dieting behaviors, marital quality, body mass index, weight concerns, depression, and self-esteem were assessed. Results indicate that the relation between healthy dieting behaviors and marital quality is similar for both husbands and wives. However, among wives, marital discord predicted unhealthy dieting behaviors, even after wives' body mass index, weight concerns, self-esteem, and depression were controlled for. Furthermore, wives' self-esteem interacted with marital quality when predicting unhealthy dieting. These findings suggest gender differences in the relations between marital quality and dieting behaviors and are consistent with previous research suggesting that men and women have differential response patterns to marital disharmony, with women tending to internalize negative affect experienced in their marriage.

A comparison of nucleic acid amplification techniques for the assessment of bacterial viability.

AIMS: The ability to determine the presence and viability status of bacteria by molecular methods could offer significant advantages to the food, environmental and health sectors, in terms of improved speed and sensitivity of detection. METHODS AND RESULTS: In this study, we have assessed three amplification techniques, PCR, RT-PCR and NASBA, for their ability to detect nucleic acid persistence in an E. coli strain following heat-killing. NASBA offered the greatest sensitivity of the three methods tested. The presence of residual DNA and mRNA could be detected by PCR and NASBA, respectively, for up to 30 h postdeath, by which time cell death had been confirmed by culture methods. Thus a single quantitative measurement based on nucleic acid amplification did not permit unequivocal determination of cell viability. CONCLUSIONS, SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The correlation between cell viability and persistence of nucleic acids must be well characterized for a particular analytical situation before molecular techniques can be substituted for traditional culture methods.

Gender and weight concerns in early and middle adolescence: links with well-being and family characteristics.

Studied sex and developmental differences in weight concerns in early and middle adolescence and links between concerns and adolescent well-being and family experiences. Participants were mothers, fathers, and older and younger siblings (Ms = 15 and 12.5 years, respectively) from 197, Caucasian, working-middle class, 2-parent families. Parents rated their gender role attitudes and adolescents rated their weight concerns, well-being, gender role orientations, and physical development. Girls reported more concerns than boys; body mass index (BMI) correlated with weight concerns for all youth. Controlling for BMI and pubertal status, weight concerns were linked to older girls' well-being; with physical characteristics controlled, mothers' gender attitudes explained older girls' weight concerns, and siblings' weight concerns explained those of older and younger girls and boys.