ABSTRACT
Berengario da Carpi was magister of anatomy and surgery at the University of Bologna from 1502 to 1527. Eustachio and Falloppia defined him as 'the restaurator of anatomy'. He was a great surgeon, anatomist and physician of illustrious patients including Lorenzo II dei Medici, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, Galeazzo Pallavicini, Cardinal Colonna, and Alessandro Soderini. He had strong links to the intellectuals of his time (Forni, Bonamici, Manuzio, Pomponazzi) as well as with the Medici family. He was respected by the Popes Julius II, Leo X and Clement VII. His main contributions are the Isogogae Breves, De Fractura calvae sive cranei, and the illustrated Commentaria on the Anatomy of Mondino de Liucci, a textbook utilized for more than 200 years, which Berengario aimed to restore to its initial text. The Commentaria constitutes the material for the last part of this paper which concludes with a personal translation of some passages on 'The kidney', where the author gives poignant examples of experimental ingenuity.
Subject(s)
Anatomy/history , General Surgery/history , History, 16th Century , Humans , Italy , Kidney/anatomy & histology , Schools, Medical/history , Teaching/historyABSTRACT
Salt is the last relic of the ocean where life was born. Its presence has influenced the whole gamut of history and its name is linked to hundred of geographical locations. Its importance for nutrition is supported by the discovery of Aeneolithic salt cellars. Salt cellars and pyramids of salt have been included in paintings and other works of art. In Japan where salt was and still is obtained from the sea, a salt culture has developed that can be traced in the rituals of everyday life, including meal preparation, sports, and Shinto ceremonies.
Subject(s)
Sodium Chloride/history , Art/history , Europe , History, 15th Century , History, 16th Century , History, 17th Century , History, 18th Century , History, 20th Century , History, Ancient , History, Medieval , Japan , Paintings/history , Religion , Roman World/historyABSTRACT
Salt has influenced human nutrition, health, politics, taxation, economy, freight, transport, and commerce throughout the ages. All human activities have been influenced by salt including economy, religious beliefs and practices, art, literature, psychoanalysis, superstitions, and exorcism. Salt is recognized as a symbol for friendship, hospitality, chastity, alliance, table fellowship, fidelity, fertility, blessing, curse and endurance, etc. The Bible is the first book of salt and contains no fewer than 24 references to this substance. In the Gospels the parable of salt is a central one. Many many church fathers have written on salt a substance, which up to 1969 was a relevant element in the rite of Baptism. This paper reviews the importance of common salt for human life, and by drawing from various scientific and literary sources makes a special discussion of its various symbolisms.
Subject(s)
Sodium Chloride/history , Europe , History, 16th Century , History, 17th Century , History, 18th Century , History, Ancient , Humans , Religion , Roman World/historyABSTRACT
Many artists have used the symbol of salt in both religious and profane works, yet very few studies have explored the symbolism of salt as used in works of art. In this study, Panofsky's method has been adopted to evaluate works of art through an organic process articulated into three stages: (1) pre-iconographic, (2) iconographic and (3) iconological. The method was used for (a) religious paintings of the Old and New Testaments and (b) mythological and profane themes. Various salt-cellars were also studied. In particular, the paper examines the following themes: Isaac blessing Jacob, the return of Esau, Samuel consecrating David, the Last Supper, the suppers at Emmaus and at the house of Simon, the birth of St. John the Baptist, the Baptism of Constantine, the prodigal son, Bacchus-Apollo, the nuptial banquet of Love and Psyche, the death of the Cavalier of Celano, the king drinks, the landlord's visit, 'Phitopolis faisant servir des mets en or au roi Pithès', certain still life paintings and various salt-cellars including those of Cellini and Giulio Romano. The paper discusses the works of many artists including Raphael, Leonardo and his school (Boltraffio, Giampietrino, d'Oggiono, Solario), Hendricksz, Corenzio, Jean-Baptiste and Philippe de Champaigne, Damaskinos, Tintoretto, Titian, Romanino, Rubens, Bellini, Bloemaert, Veronese, Sustris, Just of Ghent, Jan Van Hemessen, Poussin, Loir, Giotto, Jordaens, Brueghel and Mimmo Paladino with his enchanted mountain. From the data examined it emerged that salt is a primary iconological presence in various works of art.
