ABSTRACT
The composition of milk includes factors required to provide appropriate nutrition for the growth of the neonate. However, it is now clear that milk has many functions and comprises bioactive molecules that play a central role in regulating developmental processes in the young while providing a protective function for both the suckled young and the mammary gland during the lactation cycle. Identifying these bioactives and their physiological function in eutherians can be difficult and requires extensive screening of milk components that may function to improve well-being and options for prevention and treatment of disease. New animal models with unique reproductive strategies are now becoming increasingly relevant to search for these factors.
Subject(s)
Lactation/physiology , Mammals/physiology , MicroRNAs/metabolism , Milk Proteins , Milk, Human/metabolism , Milk/metabolism , Animals , Biological Evolution , Digestive System/growth & development , Female , Genomics , Humans , Lung/growth & development , Marsupialia/physiology , Milk/chemistry , Milk/immunology , Milk, Human/chemistry , Milk, Human/immunology , Models, Animal , Monotremata/physiology , Peptides/metabolismABSTRACT
Monotremes are the only oviparous mammals and exhibit a fascinating combination of reptilian and mammalian characters. They represent a component of synapsidal reproduction by laying shelled eggs which are incubated outside the mother's body. This is accompanied by a prototherian lactation process, marking them as representatives of early mammals. The only extant monotremes are the platypus, and the short- and long- beaked echidnas, and their distributions are limited to Australia and New Guinea. Apart for a short weaning period, milk is the sole source of nutrition and protection for the hatchlings which are altricial and immunologically naive. The duration of lactation in these mammals is prolonged relative to the gestational length and period of incubation of eggs. Much of the development of monotreme young occurs in the non-sterile ex-utero environment. Therefore the role of milk in the growth, development and disease protection of the young is of significant interest. By sequencing the cDNA of cells harvested from monotreme milk, we have identified a novel monotreme- specific transcript, and the corresponding gene was designated as the EchAMP. The expression profile of this gene in various tissues revealed that it is highly expressed in milk cells. The peptides corresponding to the EchAMP protein have been identified in a sample of echidna milk In silico analysis indicated putative antimicrobial potential for the cognate protein of EchAMP. This was further confirmed by in vitro assays using a host of bacteria. Interestingly, EchAMP did not display any activity against a commensal gut floral species. These results support the hypothesis of enhancement of survival of the young by antimicrobial bioactives of mammary gland origin and thus emphasize the protective, non- nutritional role of milk in mammals.
Subject(s)
Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides/genetics , Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides/metabolism , Lactation/metabolism , Tachyglossidae/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides/chemistry , Antimicrobial Cationic Peptides/pharmacology , Bacteria/drug effects , Computational Biology , Culture Media, Conditioned/chemistry , Female , Gene Expression Profiling , Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects , Genome/genetics , Glycosylation/drug effects , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions/drug effects , Lactation/drug effects , Lactation/genetics , Microbial Sensitivity Tests , Milk/chemistry , Molecular Sequence Data , Protein Processing, Post-Translational/drug effects , Protein Sorting Signals , Protein Structure, Secondary , RNA, Messenger/genetics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Species Specificity , Tachyglossidae/genetics , TransfectionABSTRACT
Mammary gland stem cells (MaSC) have not been identified in spite of extensive research spanning over several decades. This has been primarily due to the complexity of mammary gland structure and its development, cell heterogeneity in the mammary gland and the insufficient knowledge about MaSC markers. At present, Lin (-) CD29 (i) CD49f (i) CD24 (+/mod) Sca- 1 (-) cells of the mammary gland have been reported to be enriched with MaSCs. We suggest that the inclusion of stem cell markers like Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and the mammary gland differentiation marker BRCA-1 may further narrow down the search for MaSCs. In addition, we have discussed some of the other unresolved puzzles on the mammary gland stem cells, such as their similarities and/or differences with mammary cancer stem cells, use of milk as source of mammary stem cells and the possibility of in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells into functional mammary gland structures in this review. Nevertheless, it is the lack of identity for a MaSC that is curtailing the advances in some of the above and other related areas.
Subject(s)
Mammary Glands, Animal/cytology , Mammary Glands, Human/cytology , Mammary Glands, Human/metabolism , Stem Cells/cytology , Stem Cells/metabolism , Animals , Cell Differentiation/physiology , Embryonic Stem Cells/cytology , Embryonic Stem Cells/metabolism , Epithelial Cells/cytology , Epithelial Cells/metabolism , Female , Humans , Mammary Glands, Animal/metabolism , Mice , Neoplastic Stem Cells/cytology , Neoplastic Stem Cells/metabolismABSTRACT
Hypoxia induces barrier dysfunctions in endothelial cells. Nitric oxide is an autacoid signalling molecule that confers protection against hypoxia-mediated barrier dysfunctions. Dyn-2 (dynamin-2), a large GTPase and a positive modulator of eNOS (endothelial nitric oxide synthase), plays an important role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. The present study aims to elucidate the role of dyn-2 in hypoxia-mediated leakiness of the endothelial monolayer in relation to redox milieu. Inhibition of dyn-2 by transfecting the cells with K44A, a dominant negative construct of dyn-2, elevated leakiness of the endothelial monolayer under hypoxia. Sodium nitroprusside (nitric oxide donor) and uric acid (peroxynitrite quencher) were used to evaluate the role of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in maintaining endothelial barrier functions under hypoxia. Administration of nitric oxide and uric acid recovered hypoxia-mediated leakiness of K44A-overexpressed endothelial monolayer. Our study confirms that inhibition of dyn-2 induces leakiness in the endothelial monolayer by increasing the load of peroxynitrite under hypoxia.
