The antipsychotic drug loxapine is an opener of the sodium-activated potassium channel slack (Slo2.2).

Sodium-activated potassium (K(Na)) channels have been suggested to set the resting potential, to modulate slow after-hyperpolarizations, and to control bursting behavior or spike frequency adaptation (Trends Neurosci 28:422-428, 2005). One of the genes that encodes K(Na) channels is called Slack (Kcnt1, Slo2.2). Studies found that Slack channels were highly expressed in nociceptive dorsal root ganglion neurons and modulated their firing frequency (J Neurosci 30:14165-14172, 2010). Therefore, Slack channel openers are of significant interest as putative analgesic drugs. We screened the library of pharmacologically active compounds with recombinant human Slack channels expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells, by using rubidium efflux measurements with atomic absorption spectrometry. Riluzole at 500 µM was used as a reference agonist. The antipsychotic drug loxapine and the anthelmintic drug niclosamide were both found to activate Slack channels, which was confirmed by using manual patch-clamp analyses (EC(50) = 4.4 µM and EC(50) = 2.9 µM, respectively). Psychotropic drugs structurally related to loxapine were also evaluated in patch-clamp experiments, but none was found to be as active as loxapine. Loxapine properties were confirmed at the single-channel level with recombinant rat Slack channels. In dorsal root ganglion neurons, loxapine was found to behave as an opener of native K(Na) channels and to increase the rheobase of action potential. This study identifies new K(Na) channel pharmacological tools, which will be useful for further Slack channel investigations.

SSR591813, a novel selective and partial alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptor agonist with potential as an aid to smoking cessation.

(5aS,8S,10aR)-5a,6,9,10-Tetrahydro,7H,11H-8,10a-methanopyrido[2',3':5,6]pyrano[2,3-d]azepine (SSR591813) is a novel compound that binds with high affinity to the rat and human alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes (Ki = 107 and 36 nM, respectively) and displays selectivity for the alpha4beta2 nAChR (Ki, human alpha3beta4 > 1000, alpha3beta2 = 116; alpha1beta1deltagamma > 6000 nM and rat alpha7 > 6000 nM). Electrophysiological experiments indicate that SSR591813 is a partial agonist at the human alpha4beta2 nAChR subtype (EC50 = 1.3 micro M, IA =19% compared with the full agonist 1,1-dimethyl-4-phenyl-piperazinium). In vivo findings from microdialysis and drug discrimination studies confirm the partial intrinsic activity of SSR591813. The drug increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell (30 mg/kg i.p.) and generalizes to nicotine or amphetamine (10-20 mg/kg i.p.) in rats, with an efficacy approximately 2-fold lower than that of nicotine. Pretreatment with SSR591813 (10 mg/kg i.p.) reduces the dopamine-releasing and discriminative effects of nicotine. SSR591813 shows activity in animal models of nicotine dependence at doses devoid of unwanted side effects typically observed with nicotine (hypothermia and cardiovascular effects). The compound (10 mg/kg i.p.) also prevents withdrawal signs precipitated by mecamylamine in nicotine-dependent rats and partially blocks the discriminative cue of an acute precipitated withdrawal. SSR591813 (20 mg/kg i.p.) reduces i.v. nicotine self-administration and antagonizes nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization in rats. The present results confirm important role for alpha4beta2 nAChRs in mediating nicotine dependence and suggest that SSR591813, a partial agonist at this particular nAChR subtype, may have therapeutic potential in the clinical management of smoking cessation.

Subunit composition of rat ventral spinal cord GABA(A) receptors, assessed by single cell RT-multiplex PCR.

We analyzed the expression of native GABA(A) receptors in choline acetyltransferase and glutamic acid decarboxilase positive cells, from lamina IX of the lumbar region of rat spinal cord. More than one isoform of each subunit was detected within a single cell. The alpha3, alpha5, alpha1, beta3 and gamma2 subunit was the most frequent combination in both cell populations. However, the total number of subunit expressed by each cell type was different, being the ChAT positive cells the simplest. Interestingly, the ChAT and GAD positive cells also displayed a different pattern of distribution of both spliced isoforms of the gamma2 subunit. These results indicate that several GABA(A) receptors, with different molecular composition, are expressed in a single cell and that different cell types can express different GABA(A) receptors.

Transmembrane domain III plays an important role in ion binding and permeation in the glycine transporter GLYT2.

The neuronal glycine transporter GLYT2 takes up glycine from the extracellular space by an electrogenic process where this neurotransmitter is co-transported with sodium and chloride ions. We report in this paper that tyrosine at position 289 of GLYT2a is crucial for ion coupling, glycine affinity and sodium selectivity, stressing the essential role played by this residue of transmembrane domain III in the mechanism of transport. Substitution to tryptophan (Y289W), phenylalanine (Y289F), or serine (Y289S), renders transporters unable to catalyze glycine uptake. Measurements of glycine evoked steady-state currents in transfected HEK-293 cells reveal EC(50) values for glycine 17-fold (Y289F) and 45-fold (Y289S) higher than that of the wild type transporter. Sodium dependence is severely altered in tyrosine 289 mutants, both at the level of apparent affinity and cooperativity, with the more dramatic change corresponding to the less conservative substitution (Y289S). Accordingly, sodium selectivity is gradually lost in Y289F and Y289S mutants, and chloride dependence of glycine evoked currents is markedly decreased in Y289F and Y289S mutants. In the absence of three-dimensional information from these transporters, these results provide experimental evidence supporting the hypothesis of transmembrane domain III being part of a common permeation pathway for substrate and co-transported ions.

R- and L-type Ca2+ channels are insensitive to eliprodil in rat cultured cerebellar granule neurons.

We have investigated, by using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique, the Ca2+ channel antagonist properties of eliprodil in cultured cerebellar granule cells which are known to express L-, N-, P- as well as Q- and R-type Ca2+ channels. Eliprodil maximally antagonized 50% of the voltage-dependent Ba2+ current with an IC50 of 4 microM. omega-Conotoxin-GVIA (3.2 microM) and omega-agatoxin-IVA (0.5 microM) blocked 28 and 43% of the current, respectively. When eliprodil (30 microM) was added to omega-conotoxin-GVIA or omega-agatoxin-IVA the magnitude of the maximal inhibition was identical to that obtained with eliprodil alone confirming a full blockade by eliprodil of N-, P- and Q-type Ca2+ channels. The L-type channel antagonist nimodipine (10 microM) blocked 24% of the current; this blockade was fully additive to that of eliprodil, indicating that the nimodipine-sensitive component of the current is eliprodil-insensitive. In the presence of eliprodil and nimodipine a residual Cd2+ sensitive current (25%), identified as the R-type current, remained unblocked. We conclude that in cerebellar granule neurons R- and L-type Ca2+ channels are insensitive to eliprodil. The nimodipine-sensitive channels present in cerebellar granule neurons may represent a neuronal subtype of L channels distinct from that (eliprodil-sensitive/nimodipine-sensitive) present in cortical or hippocampal neurons.

Block of P-type Ca2+ channels by the NMDA receptor antagonist eliprodil in acutely dissociated rat Purkinje cells.

The effect of eliprodil on P-type Ca2+ channels was investigated in acutely dissociated rat Purkinje neurons, by using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Eliprodil inhibited in a reversible manner the omega-agatoxin-IVA-sensitive Ba2+ current elicited by step depolarizations from a -80 mV holding voltage (IC50 = 1.9 microM). The Ba2+ current showed steady-state inactivation (V1/2 = -61 mV) which was shifted toward more positive values when the intracellular Ca2+ buffering was increased. In these conditions, the potency of eliprodil was decreased (IC50 = 8.2 microM), suggesting a modulation by intracellular Ca2+ of the eliprodil blockade. The potency of eliprodil was not modified at more depolarized holding potentials and was not dependent on the frequency at which the step-depolarizations were applied (0-0.2 Hz) indicating a lack of voltage and use dependence of the eliprodil blockade. When eliprodil was applied in the patch-pipette at a concentration which causes full block when applied externally, the Ba2+ current amplitude was not affected and external application of eliprodil was still efficacious, indicating an extracellular location of the binding site. Analysis of the time course of recovery from Ca2+ channel blockade obtained by concomitant application of eliprodil with Cd2+, omega-agatoxin-IVA or fluspirilene, indicated that these later compounds did not interact with eliprodil, suggesting that eliprodil acts at a different site. These results demonstrate that eliprodil blocks P-type Ca2+ channels in cerebellar Purkinje neurons and suggest that this property may contribute to its neuroprotective activity.

Modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor by the antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine and phenytoin.

We report here that carbamazepine and phenytoin, two widely used antiepileptic drugs, potentiate gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-induced Cl- currents in human embryonic kidney cells transiently expressing the alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2 subtype of the GABAA receptor and in cultured rat cortical neurons. In cortical neuron recordings, the current induced by 1 microM GABA was enhanced by carbamazepine and phenytoin with EC50 values of 24.5 nM and 19.6 nM and maximal potentiations of 45.6% and 90%, respectively. The potentiation by these compounds was dependent upon the concentration of GABA, suggesting an allosteric modulation of the receptor, but was not antagonized by the benzodiazepine (omega) modulatory site antagonist flumazenil. Carbamazepine and phenytoin did not modify GABA-induced currents in human embryonic kidney cells transiently expressing binary alpha 1 beta 2 recombinant GABAA receptors. The alpha 1 beta 2 recombinant is known to possess functional barbiturate, steroid, and picrotoxin sites, indicating that these sites are not involved in the modulatory effects of carbamazepine and phenytoin. When tested in cells containing recombinant alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2, alpha 3 beta 2 gamma 2, or alpha 5 beta 2 gamma 2 GABAA receptors, carbamazepine and phenytoin potentiated the GABA-induced current only in those cells expressing the alpha 1 beta 2 gamma 2 receptor subtype. This indicates that the nature of the alpha subunit isoform plays a critical role in determining the carbamazepine/phenytoin pharmacophore. Our results therefore illustrate the existence of one or more new allosteric regulatory sites for carbamazepine and phenytoin on the GABAA receptor. These sites could be implicated in the known anticonvulsant properties of these drugs and thus may offer new targets in the search for novel antiepileptic drugs.

The NMDA receptor antagonist eliprodil (SL 82.0715) blocks voltage-operated Ca2+ channels in rat cultured cortical neurons.

The effect of the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist eliprodil on NMDA receptor- and voltage-operated Ca2+ currents was investigated in rat cultured cortical neurons by using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. With neurons voltage-clamped at -40 mV, eliprodil reduced in a concentration-dependent manner the inward current induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) (10 microM) in the presence of D-serine with an IC50 of 0.67 microM (Imax = 83%). Eliprodil also blocked the total inward Ba2+ current carried in part by L- and N-type Ca2+ channels with an IC50 of 1.48 microM (Imax = 87%). These results suggest that the neuroprotective properties of eliprodil could be due to its combined ability to antagonize the NMDA receptor- and voltage-operated Ca2+ channels.