Progranulin and Its Related MicroRNAs after Status Epilepticus: Possible Mechanisms of Neuroprotection.

The current knowledge about neuroprotective mechanisms in humans after status epilepticus is scarce. One reason is the difficulty to measure possible mediators of these neuroprotective mechanisms. The dawn of microRNA detection in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the recent advancements in measuring proteins in the CSF such as progranulin, which is, e.g., responsible for neurite outgrowth and limiting exceeding neuroinflammatory responses, have given us new insights into putative neuroprotective mechanisms following status epilepticus. This should complement the animal data. In this review, we cover what is known about the role of progranulin as well as the links between microRNA changes and the progranulin pathway following status epilepticus in humans and animals hypothesizing neuroprotective and neurorehabilitative effects. Progranulin has also been found to feature prominently in the neuroprotective processes under hypoxic conditions and initiating neurorehabilitative processes. These properties may be used therapeutically, e.g., through drugs that raise the progranulin levels and therefore the cerebral progranulin levels as well with the goal of improving the outcome after status epilepticus.

Progranulin and Amyloid-ß Levels: Relationship to Neuropsychology in Frontotemporal and Alzheimer's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has improved over the last few years; thus specific markers for different diseases have emerged, e.g., amyloid-ß (Aß) for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and progranulin for frontotemporal dementia (FTD). OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of correlation between biomarkers in CSF and cognitive performance in populations with AD and FTD. METHODS: 27 patients with AD and 16 with FTD were included. CSF tau, P-tau(181P), Aß42, and progranulin (PGRN) were measured and a standardized neuropsychological test battery applied. Olfactory testing was additionally included where available. RESULTS: For all patients across both groups, an association between PGRN and categoric (p = 0.016) and letter fluency (p = 0.029), naming (p = 0.003), and overall cognition (Mini-Mental State Examination: p = 0.04) was observed. Aß42 was strongly associated with memory function (learning: p = 0.001; recall: p = 0.002). A correlation between Aß42 and memory performance was moreover found for each group separately, while PGRN also showed a correlation with recognition memory (p = 0.04) in AD. Furthermore, an association between reduced PGRN and olfactory dysfunction was revealed (p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: CSF-levels of PGRN and Aß42 levels express deficits in cognition differentially, with PGRN being predominantly associated with frontal and Aß42 with temporal dysfunction. This mirrors the cerebral occurrence of these proteins. These associations appear to be consistent across both disease groups. The relationship between PGRN and olfaction further underpins the association between PRGN and frontal dysfunction.

Repetitive pupil light reflex: potential marker in Alzheimer's disease?

It was investigated whether alterations of the pupil's light reflex might reflect Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Changes in the pupil's system might be expected due to AD pathology present in the oculomotor system of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, and a cholinergic deficit caused by degeneration of the nucleus basalis Meynert. A rather new method of repetitive light stimulation was applied assessing variations in pupil size, latency, and amplitude over time. We analyzed 44 healthy controls, 42 subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and 66 AD patients. AD and MCI showed a less pronounced pupil size decrease and amplitude increase over time than controls. A higher MMSE was associated with a higher increase of relative amplitude and greater decrease of latency in AD and MCI, and absolute amplitude increase in AD alone. Pupil size increase correlated with cerebrospinal fluid markers in AD. Summarized pupil light reflex is not stable under repetitive stimulation, but changes systematically and less pronounced in AD and MCI. Thus repetitive stimulation of the pupil's response potentially indicates AD pathology.

Memory deficits in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are not exclusively caused by executive dysfunction: a comparative neuropsychological study of amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

BACKGROUND: Recent work suggests that ALS and frontotemporal dementia can occur together and share at least in part the same underlying pathophysiology. However, it is unclear at present whether memory deficits in ALS stem from a temporal lobe dysfunction, or are rather driven by frontal executive dysfunction. In this study we sought to investigate the nature of memory deficits by analyzing the neuropsychological performance of 40 ALS patients in comparison to 39 amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) patients and 40 healthy controls (HC). The neuropsychological battery tested for impairment in executive functions, as well as memory and visuo-spatial skills, the results of which were compared across study groups. In addition, we calculated composite scores for memory (learning, recall, recognition) and executive functions (verbal fluency, cognitive flexibility, working memory). We hypothesized that the nature of memory impairment in ALS will be different from those exhibited by aMCI patients. RESULTS: Patient groups exhibited significant differences in their type of memory deficit, with the ALS group showing impairment only in recognition, whereas aMCI patients showed short and delayed recall performance deficits as well as reduced short-term capacity. Regression analysis revealed a significant impact of executive function on memory performance exclusively for the ALS group, accounting for one fifth of their memory performance. Interestingly, merging all sub scores into a single memory and an executive function score obscured these differences. CONCLUSION: The presented results indicate that the interpretation of neuropsychological scores needs to take the distinct cognitive profiles in ALS and aMCI into consideration. Importantly, the observed memory deficits in ALS were distinctly different from those observed in aMCI and can be explained only to some extent in the context of comorbid (coexisting) executive dysfunction. These findings highlight the qualitative differences in temporal lobe dysfunction between ALS and aMCI patients, and support temporal lobe dysfunction as a mechanism underlying the distinct cognitive impairments observed in ALS.

Association of 1H-MR spectroscopy and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease: diverging behavior at three different brain regions.

BACKGROUND: In Alzheimer's disease (AD), levels of N-acetylaspartate (NAA) is diminished and choline (Cho) and myo-inositol (mI) are increased. In cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), tau and phosphoylated tau (p-tau181P) is increased and amyloid-ß(1-42) (Aß42) decreased. OBJECTIVES: 1) To compare metabolites of different 1H-MRS voxels and assess its utility to differentiate AD from controls and to examine the relationship to cognition and to CSF markers. METHODS: 17 healthy controls and 19 AD subjects were studied using 1H-MRS. In the AD cases, additional CSF analysis was obtained. RESULTS: Relative to controls, AD subjects had reduced NAA/Creatine (Cr) levels in hippocampus (42.3% to 26.0%, p < 0.001), posterior cingulate gyrus (10.4% to 0.2%, p = 0.04), and parietal lobe (14.9% to 3.8%, p = 0.002). Further differences of Cho/Cr and mI/Cr in the hippocampus (Cho/Cr: p = 0.04; mI/Cr: p = 0.015) and posterior cingulate (Cho/Cr: p = 0.001; mI/Cr: p = 0.001) were observed. NAA/Cr of the hippocampus yielded the highest sensitivity (94.1%) and specificity (92.3%) to differentiate AD from controls. NAA/Cr was associated with general cognition (hippocampus: R = 0.68, p < 0.001; parietal lobe: R = 0.57, p = 0.001; posterior cingulate: R = 0.50, p = 0.003). Higher hippocampal NAA/Cr was related to higher CSF Aß42, while lower parietal NAA/Cr was associated with a higher CSF total tau (t-tau) and p-tau181P. Posterior cingulate mI/Cr was related to CSF t-tau and NAA/mI. CONCLUSION: 1H-MRS is an appropriate measure in AD. Measurement at different regions presumably reflects different pathological changes.

Positive FP-CIT SPECT (DaTSCAN) in Clinical Alzheimer's Disease - An Unexpected Finding?

Clinically, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is by far the most common cause of dementia. Criteria for the diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are highly specific but not at all sensitive, which is reflected by the higher number of DLB cases detected histopathologically at autopsy. Imaging of dopamine transporter with FP-CIT SPECT is one possibility to increase sensitivity. Pathological confirmation was also included in the revised consensus criteria for the diagnosis of DLB. However, in the absence of parkinsonism, one of the core features, a clinical diagnosis of AD is more likely. The role of FP-CIT SPECT in DLB diagnosis remains to be clarified. Based on our 3 case reports and a review of the literature, the utility of this imaging method in the differential diagnosis of AD and DLB is highlighted.