Baseline characteristics of people experiencing homelessness with a recent drug overdose in the PHOENIx pilot randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Drug-related deaths in Scotland are the highest in Europe. Half of all deaths in people experiencing homelessness are drug related, yet we know little about the unmet health needs of people experiencing homelessness with recent non-fatal overdose, limiting a tailored practice and policy response to a public health crisis. METHODS: People experiencing homelessness with at least one non-fatal street drug overdose in the previous 6 months were recruited from 20 venues in Glasgow, Scotland, and randomised into PHOENIx plus usual care, or usual care. PHOENIx is a collaborative assertive outreach intervention by independent prescriber NHS Pharmacists and third sector homelessness workers, offering repeated integrated, holistic physical, mental and addictions health and social care support including prescribing. We describe comprehensive baseline characteristics of randomised participants. RESULTS: One hundred and twenty-eight participants had a mean age of 42 years (SD 8.4); 71% male, homelessness for a median of 24 years (IQR 12-30). One hundred and eighteen (92%) lived in large, congregate city centre temporary accommodation. A quarter (25%) were not registered with a General Practitioner. Participants had overdosed a mean of 3.2 (SD 3.2) times in the preceding 6 months, using a median of 3 (IQR 2-4) non-prescription drugs concurrently: 112 (87.5%) street valium (benzodiazepine-type new psychoactive substances); 77 (60%) heroin; and 76 (59%) cocaine. Half (50%) were injecting, 50% into their groins. 90% were receiving care from Alcohol and Drug Recovery Services (ADRS), and in addition to using street drugs, 90% received opioid substitution therapy (OST), 10% diazepam for street valium use and one participant received heroin-assisted treatment. Participants had a mean of 2.2 (SD 1.3) mental health problems and 5.4 (SD 2.5) physical health problems; 50% received treatment for physical or mental health problems. Ninety-one per cent had at least one mental health problem; 66% had no specialist mental health support. Participants were frail (70%) or pre-frail (28%), with maximal levels of psychological distress, 44% received one or no daily meal, and 58% had previously attempted suicide. CONCLUSIONS: People at high risk of drug-related death continue to overdose repeatedly despite receiving OST. High levels of frailty, multimorbidity, unsuitable accommodation and unmet mental and physical health care needs require a reorientation of services informed by evidence of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. Trial registration UK Clinical Trials Registry identifier: ISRCTN 10585019.

Pharmacist and Homeless Outreach Engagement and Non-medical Independent prescribing Rx (PHOENIx): a study protocol for a pilot randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: The number of people experiencing homelessness (PEH) is increasing worldwide. Systematic reviews show high levels of multimorbidity and mortality. Integrated health and social care outreach interventions may improve outcomes. No previous studies have targeted PEH with recent drug overdose despite high levels of drug-related deaths and few data describe their health/social care problems. Feasibility work suggests a collaborative health and social care intervention (Pharmacist and Homeless Outreach Engagement and Non-medical Independent prescribing Rx, PHOENIx) is potentially beneficial. We describe the methods of a pilot randomised controlled trial (RCT) with parallel process and economic evaluation of PEH with recent overdose. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Detailed health and social care information will be collected before randomisation to care-as-usual plus visits from a pharmacist and a homeless outreach worker (PHOENIx) for 6-9 months or to care-as-usual. The outcomes are the rates of presentations to emergency department for overdose or other causes and whether to progress to a definitive RCT: recruitment of ≥100 participants within 4 months, ≥60% of patients remaining in the study at 6 and 9 months, ≥60% of patients receiving the intervention, and ≥80% of patients with data collected. The secondary outcomes include health-related quality of life, hospitalisations, treatment uptake and patient-reported measures. Semistructured interviews will explore the future implementation of PHOENIx, the reasons for overdose and protective factors. We will assess the feasibility of conducting a cost-effectiveness analysis. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by South East Scotland National Health Service Research Ethics Committee 01. Results will be made available to PEH, the study funders and other researchers. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN10585019.

Dietary exposures and allergy prevention in high-risk infants.

Infants at high risk for developing a food allergy have either an atopic condition (such as eczema) themselves or an immediate family member with such a condition. Breastfeeding should be promoted and supported regardless of issues pertaining to food allergy prevention, but for infants whose mothers cannot or choose not to breastfeed, using a specific formula (i.e., hydrolyzed formula) is not recommended to prevent food allergies. When cow's milk protein formula has been introduced in an infant's diet, make sure that regular ingestion (as little as 10 mL daily) is maintained to prevent loss of tolerance. For high-risk infants, there is compelling evidence that introducing allergenic foods early-at around 6 months, but not before 4 months of age-can prevent common food allergies, and allergies to peanut and egg in particular. Once an allergenic food has been introduced, regular ingestion (e.g., a few times a week) is important to maintain tolerance. Common allergenic foods can be introduced without pausing for days between new foods, and the risk for a severe reaction at first exposure in infancy is extremely low. Pre-emptive in-office screening before introducing allergenic foods is not recommended. No recommendations can be made at this time about the role of maternal dietary modification during pregnancy or lactation, or about supplementing with vitamin D, omega 3, or pre- or probiotics as means to prevent food allergy.

Dietary exposures and allergy prevention in high-risk infants.

Infants at high risk for developing a food allergy have either an atopic condition (such as eczema) themselves or an immediate family member with such a condition. Breastfeeding should be promoted and supported regardless of issues pertaining to food allergy prevention, but for infants whose mothers cannot or choose not to breastfeed, using a specific formula (i.e., hydrolyzed formula) is not recommended to prevent food allergies. When cow's milk protein formula has been introduced in an infant's diet, make sure that regular ingestion (as little as 10 mL daily) is maintained to prevent loss of tolerance. For high-risk infants, there is compelling evidence that introducing allergenic foods early-at around 6 months, but not before 4 months of age-can prevent common food allergies, and allergies to peanut and egg in particular. Once an allergenic food has been introduced, regular ingestion (e.g., a few times a week) is important to maintain tolerance. Common allergenic foods can be introduced without pausing for days between new foods, and the risk for a severe reaction at first exposure in infancy is extremely low. Pre-emptive in-office screening before introducing allergenic foods is not recommended. No recommendations can be made at this time about the role of maternal dietary modification during pregnancy or lactation, or about supplementing with vitamin D, omega 3, or pre- or probiotics as means to prevent food allergy.

L'exposition aux aliments et la prévention des allergies chez les nourrissons à haut risque.

Un nourrisson est à haut risque d'allergie alimentaire si lui ou un membre de sa famille immédiate présente une affection atopique (comme l'eczéma). Il faut promouvoir et soutenir l'allaitement, quels que soient les enjeux reliés à la prévention des allergies alimentaires, mais chez les nourrissons dont la mère ne peut pas allaiter ou choisit de ne pas le faire, il n'est pas recommandé d'utiliser une préparation en particulier (p. ex., les préparations hydrolysées) pour prévenir les allergies alimentaires. Lorsque les préparations à base de lait de vache sont introduites dans l'alimentation d'un nourrisson, il faut s'assurer de maintenir une ingestion régulière (pas nécessairement plus de 10 mL par jour) pour éviter la perte de tolérance. Chez les nourrissons à haut risque, des données concluantes indiquent que l'introduction précoce d'aliments allergènes (vers l'âge de six mois, mais pas avant l'âge de quatre mois) peut prévenir les allergies alimentaires courantes, notamment les allergies aux arachides et aux œufs. Lorsqu'un aliment allergène a été introduit, il est important d'en maintenir une ingestion régulière (p. ex., quelques fois par semaine) pour maintenir la tolérance. Il est possible d'introduire les aliments allergènes courants sans faire de pause de quelques jours entre chaque nouvel aliment. Par ailleurs, le risque d'une grave réaction lors de la première exposition est très faible chez le nourrisson. Il n'est pas recommandé de procéder au dépistage préventif en cabinet avant d'introduire des aliments allergènes. Aucune recommandation ne peut être formulée pour l'instant sur le rôle des modifications à l'alimentation de la mère pendant la grossesse ou l'allaitement, ou sur les suppléments de vitamine D, d'oméga 3, de prébiotiques ou de probiotiques pour prévenir les allergies alimentaires.

Les dons de lait humain pasteurisé et non pasteurisé.

Il est universellement reconnu que le lait humain est la source de nutrition exclusive optimale pour les nouveau-nés de 0 à six mois et qu'il peut faire partie du régime du nourrisson en santé jusqu'à l'âge de deux ans et même après. Malgré les avancées dans le secteur des préparations lactées pour nourrisson, le lait humain apporte tout un éventail d'avantages, en partie grâce à sa matrice bioactive qu'aucune autre source d'alimentation ne peut reproduire. Lorsque la mère produit une quantité de lait insuffisante pour son nouveau-né vulnérable, du lait pasteurisé de donneuses devrait être rendu disponible pour compléter le lait maternel et être le premier choix proposé, suivi des préparations lactées commerciales. La quantité de lait de ce type est limitée au Canada, et sa distribution est priorisée auprès des nouveau-nés malades et hospitalisés. Le partage informel de lait humain consiste à donner et recevoir du lait humain exprimé sans passer par une banque de lait humain. Il comporte un risque de transmission de bactéries et de virus en plus d'être lié à des irrégularités et des incertitudes à l'égard du dépistage des donneuses. Les pédiatres et les autres dispensateurs de soins doivent connaître les risques du partage informel de lait humain et être en mesure de proposer des possibilités plus sécuritaires aux familles.

Pasteurized and unpasteurized donor human milk.

It is universally accepted that human milk is the optimal, exclusive source of nutrition for infants 0 to 6 months of age, and may remain part of the healthy infant diet for the first 2 years of age and beyond. Despite advances in infant formulas, human milk provides a wide range of benefits, due in part to its bioactive matrix that cannot be replicated by any other source of nutrition. When there is an insufficient volume of mother's milk for the vulnerable newborn, pasteurized donor human milk should be made available, as a bridge to mother's milk and as the first alternative feeding choice, followed by commercial formula. There is a limited supply of donor milk in Canada and distribution is prioritized for sick, hospitalized neonates. Informal milk sharing is the practice of donating and receiving expressed human milk without going through a human milk bank. Informal milk sharing carries risk for bacterial and viral transmission as well as inconsistency and uncertainty regarding donor screening. Paediatricians and other health care providers need to be aware of the risks of informal milk sharing and be able to counsel families appropriately on safer alternatives.

Dietary intake of sodium by children: Why it matters.

Dietary sodium is required in very small amounts to support circulating blood volume and blood pressure (BP). Available nutritional surveillance data suggest that most Canadian children consume sodium in excess of their dietary requirements. Approximately 80% of the sodium Canadians consume comes from processed and packaged foods. High sodium intakes in children may be an indicator of poor diet quality. Results from systematic reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated that decreasing dietary sodium in children leads to small but clinically insignificant decreases in BP. However, population-level strategies to reduce sodium consumption, such as food product reformulation, modifying food procurement processes, and federal healthy eating policies, are important public health initiatives that can produce meaningful reductions in sodium consumption and help to prevent chronic disease in adulthood.

Timing of introduction of allergenic solids for infants at high risk.

Food allergy affects an estimated 2 to 10% of the population, with evidence of increasing prevalence over time. Preventing food allergy has become an important public health goal. Health Canada currently recommends breastfeeding infants exclusively until they are 6 months old, while acknowledging that in individual practice, signs of infant readiness may guide the introduction of complementary foods a few weeks earlier. There is emerging evidence that early food introduction, between 4 and 6 months of age, may have a role in preventing food allergy, particularly for egg and peanut, in high-risk infants. For infants at high risk for allergic disease, it is now recommended that commonly allergenic solids be introduced at around 6 months of age, but not before 4 months of age, and guided by the infant's developmental readiness for food. Continued breastfeeding should be encouraged and supported because of its many health benefits.

Energy and sports drinks in children and adolescents.

Sports drinks and caffeinated energy drinks (CEDs) are commonly consumed by youth. Both sports drinks and CEDs pose potential risks for the health of children and adolescents and may contribute to obesity. Sports drinks are generally unnecessary for children engaged in routine or play-based physical activity. CEDs may affect children and adolescents more than adults because they weigh less and thus experience greater exposure to stimulant ingredients per kilogram of body weight. Paediatricians need to recognize and educate patients and families on the differences between sport drinks and CEDs. Screening for the consumption of CEDs, especially when mixed with alcohol, should be done routinely. The combination of CEDs and alcohol may be a marker for higher risk of substance use or abuse and for other health-compromising behaviours.