Relational Victimization, Characterological Self-Blame, and Adjustment in Young Children.

The associations between relational victimization, self-blame attributions, and internalizing problems in early childhood has not previously been examined. Using a sample of 116 preschool children, average age 44.05 months (SD = 4.23), multiple informants, multiple methods, and a longitudinal design, path analyses were conducted to explore the associations between relational victimization, self-blame attributions (Characterological Self-Blame[CSB] and Behavioral Self-Blame[BSB]), and maladjustment in early childhood. Concurrent significant associations were found between relational victimization and internalizing problems. The initial longitudinal models revealed some significant effects that were consistent with predictions. Importantly, follow-up tests decomposing internalizing problems, indicated that anxiety at Time 1 was positively and significantly associated with CSB at Time 2. Depression at Time 1 was negatively and significantly associated with CSB at Time 2. Implications of this work are discussed.

The development of forms and functions of aggression during early childhood: A temperament-based approach.

This study used a short-term longitudinal design with theoretically derived preregistered hypotheses and analyses to examine the role of temperament in the development of forms (i.e., physical and relational) and functions (i.e., proactive and reactive) of aggressive behavior in early childhood (N = 300, M age = 44.70 months, SD = 4.38, 44% girls). Temperament was measured via behavioral reports of emotional dysregulation, fearlessness/daring, and rule internalization/empathy and, in a subsample that completed a physiological assessment, via skin conductance and respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Emotion dysregulation generally served as a risk factor for all subtypes of aggression, with evidence of stronger associations with reactive as compared to proactive functions of relational aggression for girls. Daring predicted increases in physical aggression, especially among boys, and rule internalization predicted decreases in relational aggression, especially among girls. Rule internalization mediated longitudinal associations between daring and proactive relational aggression for girls. Some evidence also emerged supporting associations between adaptive functioning (i.e., high empathy, high respiratory sinus arrhythmia) and proactive functions of aggression. Findings highlight distinct temperamental risk factors for physical versus relational aggression and provide partial support for gender-linked theories of the development of aggression.

Autonomic nervous system reactivity and preschoolers' social dominance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of skin conductance level reactivity (SCLR) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity (RSAR) in preschoolers' social dominance, as well as potential gender differences in these associations. Reactivity was assessed in response to viewing videos of social exclusion and a post-aggression discussion. In a community sample of 94 preschool children followed over one calendar year, reactivity to the post-aggression discussion, but not exclusion, video was related to social dominance. Specifically, increased RSAR to the post-aggression discussion video was positively associated with concurrent social dominance for both boys and girls. Longitudinally, for boys only, coactivation (i.e., increases in SCLR accompanied by increases in RSAR) to the post-aggression discussion video, which may reflect dysregulated, emotionally labile reactions to stress, was associated with relatively low levels of social dominance across the course of the year. Overall, findings contribute to a growing literature documenting the role of autonomic reactivity in preschoolers' social adjustment and extend this work to their capacity to achieve and maintain socially dominant positions with peers.

Measurement of aggressive behavior in early childhood: A critical analysis using five informants.

Measurement of aggressive behavior in early childhood is unique given that relational aggression is just developing, physical aggression is still prevalent, and both forms of aggression are relatively overt or direct. The current study had three aims. The first aim was to examine the internal reliability, validity, and correspondence of five different assessments of aggressive behavior in early childhood: parent report, teacher report, observer report, child report, and naturalistic school-based observations. The second aim was to test a one- and two-factor model of early childhood aggression using confirmatory factor analysis. The final aim of the study was to investigate gender differences among different reports of aggression. Observations, teacher report, and observer (research assistant) report were collected in the children's school, and parent report and child report were collected in a lab session at one time point (N = 300; 56% male; Mage = 44.86 months, SD = 5.55). Observations were collected using a focal child sampling with continuous recording approach, and previously validated measures were used for the remaining four informants. Results demonstrated that all measures were reliable with the exception of child report of relational aggression, and there was small to strong correspondence among the various informants. In addition, a two-factor structure of aggression provided the best fit to the data, providing evidence for divergence among relational and physical aggression. Finally, there were robust gender differences in physical aggression, but gender differences in relational aggression varied by method. The implications of different types of measurement are discussed.

Examining co-occurring and pure relational and physical victimization in early childhood.

The current study took a novel approach to examining peer victimization experiences on a continuum in early childhood. A bifactor approach was used to examine co-occurring victimization as well as the relative contribution of subtypes of victimization, including both physical and relational victimization. To date, no known research has examined co-occurring victimization in early childhood. The fit of a bifactor model, as well as the utility of the model in testing associations with internalizing problems, was examined. The short-term longitudinal study (N=231; 109 girls; Mage=47.46months, SD=7.35) found support for a hierarchical structure of victimization, including co-occurrence and "pure" victimization dimensions, in early childhood. Regression analyses supported that both co-occurring victimization and relational victimization were associated with internalizing adjustment outcomes. These associations differed by gender. A bifactor model may be a useful statistical technique to address the common finding of co-occurrence of victimization to better understand peer harassment experiences and risk for adjustment problems.

Relational Aggression, Victimization and Self-Concept: Testing Pathways from Middle Childhood to Adolescence.

When studying adolescent development, it is important to consider two key areas that are salient for teens, which are self-concept and peer relations. A secondary analysis of the National Institute of Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development was conducted to examine the prospective bidirectional associations between self-concept and peer relations. To date, how social development broadly and peer relations in particular (e.g., relational aggression and victimization) affect self-concept domains is not fully understood. Using a large sample (N = 1063; 532 girls; M = 11.14 years; SD = .59) with multiple informants, the present study examined whether fifth grade relational aggression and sixth grade relational victimization was associated with adolescent self-concept in three key domains (i.e., academic, sports, physical appearance). A significant direct effect emerged, such that relational aggression in middle childhood was associated with decreases in academic self-concept and increases in sports self-concept in adolescence. Analyses also revealed that having higher levels of domain specific self-concept led to decreases in relational aggression across the transition to adolescence. The findings highlight the importance of examining bidirectional prospective associations between relational aggression, relational victimization, and domain specific self-concept. Implications for future research and clinical intervention are discussed.

Peer victimization and peer rejection during early childhood.

The development and course of the subtypes of peer victimization is a relatively understudied topic despite the association of victimization with important developmental and clinical outcomes. Moreover, understanding potential predictors, such as peer rejection and emotion regulation, in early childhood may be especially important to elucidate possible bidirectional pathways between relational and physical victimization and rejection. The current study (N = 97) was designed to explore several gaps and limitations in the peer victimization and peer rejection literature. In particular, the prospective associations between relational and physical victimization and peer rejection over the course of 3.5 months during early childhood (i.e., 3 to 5 years old) were investigated in an integrated model. The study consisted of 97 (42 girls) preschool children recruited from four early childhood schools in the northeast of the United States. Using observations, research assistant report, and teacher report, relational and physical aggression, relational and physical victimization, peer rejection, and emotion regulation were measured in a short-term longitudinal study. Path analyses were conducted to test the overall hypothesized model. Peer rejection was found to predict increases in relational victimization. In addition, emotion regulation was found to predict decreases in peer rejection and physical victimization. Implications for research and practice are discussed, including teaching coping strategies for peer rejection and emotional distress.

A gender-balanced approach to the study of peer victimization and aggression subtypes in early childhood.

A short-term longitudinal study during early childhood (N = 301; 155 girls; M = 44.76 months old, SD = 8.20) investigated the prospective associations between peer victimization and aggression subtypes. Specifically, observations of relational and physical victimization as well as teacher reports of the forms (i.e., relational and physical) and functions (i.e., proactive and reactive) of aggression were collected at two time points during an academic year. Within- and between-group gender differences were examined as part of the preliminary analyses. In order to address key study questions, both directions of effect between peer victimization and aggression subtypes were examined. We found that teacher-reported proactive relational aggression predicted decreases in observed relational victimization over time, whereas reactive relational aggression predicted increases in observed relational victimization over time. Ways in which these and other findings extend the literature are discussed.