Nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide: two players in the defence response of tomato plants to root-knot nematodes.

Nitric oxide (NO) has been postulated to be required, together with reactive oxygen species (ROS) for activation of disease resistance reaction of plants to pathogen infection. Here, we investigated NO, superoxide (O(*-)2), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in tomato-root-knot nematode interactions to answer the question of whether they are produced during the early stages of nematode infection. NO detection was carried out using diaminofluorescein diacetate (DAF-2DA) by means of confocal laser microscopy and spectrophotometric analyses, and production of NO was estimated by monitoring the conversion of L-[U14C]arginine into L-[U14C]citrulline. O(*-)2 production was determined by using the tetrazolium salt, sodium,3'-{1-[phenylamino-carbonyl]-3,4-tetrazolium}-bis(4-methoxy-6-nitro) benzene-sulfonic acid hydrate (XTT) and H2O2 was measured by using the Amplex Red H2O2/peroxidase assay. Results showed i) the highest NO production in tissues challenged by avr pathotype, 12h after nematode inoculation, ii) NO production by nitric oxide synthase (NOS-like activity), iii) ROSbalance dependent control of NO. Our data evidenced, for the first time, that NO-generated signal, its spatiotemporal expression, and its cross-communication with other pro-oxidants or anti-oxidants critically influence compatible and incompatible tomato-Meloidogyne incognito interactions.

Synthesis, analytical characterization and bioactivity of Ag and Cu nanoparticles embedded in poly-vinyl-methyl-ketone films.

The electrosynthesis of copper and silver core-shell nanoparticles (NPs) by the sacrificial anode technique, employing tetraoctylammonium (TOA) salts as base electrolyte for the first time, is described. These surfactants were selected because they combine high NP stabilizing power with useful disinfecting properties. The resulting colloids were mixed with a solution of an inert dispersing polymer and used to prepare nanostructured composite thin films. The morphologies and chemical compositions of the nanomaterials were characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). The TEM reveals that the average core diameter of the metal NPs ranges between 1.7 and 6.3 nm, as a function of the nature of the metal and of the electrosynthesis conditions, and does not change significantly upon inclusion in the polymer matrix. An appreciable concentration of the metal is detected on the nanoparticle surface by XPS. High-resolution XP spectra indicate that both copper and silver are present at zero oxidation state in all of the materials (colloids and composite films). This demonstrates the high efficiency of the surfactant at controlling the morphology and the chemical composition of the nanodispersed metal in both the as-synthesized colloid and in the polymeric dispersion. The nanocoatings are shown to exert a marked inhibitory effect on the growth of eukaryote and prokaryote target microrganisms, and experimental evidence of a synergic disinfecting effect due to the surfactant and the nanodispersed metal is provided. On the basis of these stability and bioactivity results, it is clear that Cu-NPs and Ag-NPs are suitable for application in disinfecting or antifouling paint and coating formulations.

Analytical characterization of bioactive fluoropolymer ultra-thin coatings modified by copper nanoparticles.

Copper-fluoropolymer (Cu-CFx) nano-composite films are deposited by dual ion-beam sputtering. The extensive analytical characterization of these layers reveals that inorganic nanoparticles composed of Cu(II) species are evenly dispersed in a branched fluoropolymer matrix. In particular, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy has been employed to study the surface chemical composition of the material and to assess how it changes on increasing the copper loading in the composite. Transmission electron microscopy reveals that the copper nanoclusters have a mean diameter of 2-3 nm and are homogeneously in-plane distributed in the composite films. Electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy has been used to study the kinetics of copper release in the solutions employed for the biological tests. The Cu-CFx layers are employed as bioactive coatings capable of inhibiting the growth of target microorganisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Lysteria. The results of the analytical characterization enable a strict correlation to be established among the chemical composition of the material surface, the concentration of copper dissolved in the microorganisms broths, and the bioactivity of the nano-structured layer.

Multilamellar packing of myelin modeled by lipid-bound MBP.

Membrane compaction and adhesion at the major dense line (cytoplasmic apposition) of myelin, particularly in the central nervous system (CNS), is typically attributed to myelin basic protein (MBP). To explore the role of MBP in myelin membrane adhesion, we attempted to reconstitute the major dense line of myelin from purified lipid-bound MBP, which is a detergent-soluble form of MBP that retains the binding of all the myelin lipids. Removal of detergent by long-term dialysis yielded a precipitate, which, when analyzed by sodium dodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and thin-layer chromatography, contained MBP that was still associated with myelin lipids, but in different proportions than in the native membrane. Comparison of lipid composition among isolated myelin, MBP-free myelin lipids, and lipid-bound MBP aggregates showed that the lipid-bound form of the protein was specifically enriched in phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidylserine. Electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction demonstrated that the lipid-MBP complexes formed multilayers having periods of 70-85 A, which correspond in width to individual myelin membranes. By contrast, the lipids alone assembled as multilayers having a period of approximately 40 A. Thus, the detergent-soluble form of MBP, which is bound to lipids, might serve as a simple model for the cytoplasmic apposition of myelin.

Specificity of zinc binding to myelin basic protein.

Zn2+ appears to stabilize the myelin sheath but the mechanism of this effect is unknown. In a previous report we have shown that zinc binds to CNS myelin basic protein (MBP) in the presence of phosphate and this results in MBP aggregation. For this paper we used a solid phase zinc blotting assay to identify which myelin proteins bind zinc. MBP and a 58 kDa band were found to be the major targets of 65Zn binding. Moreover, using fluorescence, light scattering and electron microscopy we investigated the binding of zinc and other cations to purified MBP in solution. Among the cations tested for their ability to interfere with the binding of zinc, the most effective were cadmium, mercury and copper, but only cadmium and mercury increased the scattering intensity, whereas MBP aggregation was not inhibited by copper ions. Thus, the effect of zinc on the formation of MBP clusters seems to be specific.

Ultrastructural studies on the nematode Xiphinema diversicaudatum: Egg shell formation.

The ultrastructure of the formation of the egg shell in the longidorid nematode Xiphinema diversicaudatum is described. Upon fertilization a vitelline membrane, which constitutes the vitelline layer of the egg shell, is formed. The chitinous layer is secreted in the perivitelline space, between the vitelline layer and the egg cell membrane. On completion of the chitinous layer, the material of the lipid layer is extruded from the egg cytoplasm to the outer surface, through finger-like projections. Both chitinous and lipid layers are secreted by granules in the egg cytoplasm that disappear as the layers are completed. Chitinous and lipid layers are formed during the passage of the egg through the oviduct. The vitelline layer is enriched with secretions produced by the oviduct cells and then by phospholipids secreted by the cells of the pars dilatata oviductus. The inner uterine layer is also formed by deposition of secretory products apposed on the egg shell in the distal uterine region and Z-differentiation. In the proximal part of the uterus, the egg has a discontinuous electron-dense layer, the external uterine layer. Tangential sections between chitinous and uterine layers revealed the presence of holes, possibly egg pores, delimited by the two uterine layers.

Ultrastructural studies on the nematode Xiphinema diversicaudatum: Oogenesis and fertilization.

Oogenesis and fertilization in longidorid nematodes has been examined for the first time at electron microscope level in Xiphinema diversicaudatum. Oogonia in the germinative zone of the ovary are irregularly shaped and lie adjacent to each other or separated by processes of the epithelial cells of the ovary. Developing oocytes pass in single file up to the growth zone and fibrogranular formation occurs around their nucleus. The perinuclear deposits remain until the oocyte is fully grown. Oocytes increase rapidly in volume because of the production of secretory granules. Three types of granules are recognizable. Type 1 granules are spherical, amorphous in structure and delimited by a lighter area, probably consisting of lipoprotein. Type 2 granules, electron lucent, arranged in groups, are lipid inclusions. Type 3 are dense spheres and may represent yolk bodies. The two last are then utilized by the developing embryo. Mature oocytes assume a smooth, cylindrical configuration as they traverse the oviduct. A cone of fertilization seems to be formed at the distal pole of the oocyte, where the sperm penetrates. The sperm totally penetrates the oocyte, through an invagination formed at the oocyte surface. The oocyte continues to undergo two unequal cytoplasmic divisions, resulting in the formation of a female pronucleus and two polar bodies. Under the stimulus of fertilization, a new egg cell membrane is produced, the first one becoming the vitelline envelope.

Characterization of Anionic Peroxidases in Tomato Isolines Infected by Meloidogyne incognita.

Changes in peroxidase activity during nematode infection were studied using root extracts of tomato near-isogenic lines differing in resistance to Meloidogyne incognita. Total peroxidase activity increased slightly in crude extracts of four susceptible isolines but doubled in two resistant lines, Monita and Motaci. Nematode infection enhanced levels of both p-phenylenediamine-pyrocatechol oxidase and syringaldazine oxidase 7 days after inoculation, especially in resistant lines. This elevated peroxidase activity in resistant isolines was caused by an increase in anionic peroxidase activity. These enzymes, which likely are involved in lignification, were isolated and purified from tomato isolines by ammonium sulfate precipitation, high performance ion-exchange chromatography, and gel electrophoresis. The purified anionic peroxidase extracts contained an electrophoretic band with Rf 0.51 that was present in extracts of infected but not uninfected roots.