Experimental setup for high-temperature in situ studies of crystallization of thin films with atmosphere control.

Understanding the crystallization process for chemical solution deposition (CSD) processed thin films is key in designing the fabrication strategy for obtaining high-quality devices. Here, an in situ sample environment is presented for studying the crystallization of CSD processed thin films under typical processing parameters using near-grazing-incidence synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Typically, the pyrolysis is performed in a rapid thermal processing (RTP) unit, where high heating rates, high temperatures and atmosphere control are the main control parameters. The presented in situ setup can reach heating rates of 20°C s-1 and sample surface temperatures of 1000°C, comparable with commercial RTP units. Three examples for lead-free ferroelectric thin films are presented to show the potential of the new experimental set-up: high temperature, for crystallization of highly textured Sr0.4Ba0.6Nb2O6 on a SrTiO3 (001) substrate, high heating rate, revealing polycrystalline BaTiO3, and atmosphere control with 25% CO2, for crystallization of BaTiO3. The signal is sufficient to study a single deposited layer (≥10 nm for the crystallized film) which then defines the interface between the substrate and thin film for the following layers. A protocol for processing the data is developed to account for a thermal shift of the entire setup, including the sample, to allow extraction of maximum information from the refinement, e.g. texture. The simplicity of the sample environment allows for the future development of even more advanced measurements during thin-film processing under non-ambient conditions.

High-pressure single crystal X-ray diffraction study of thermoelectric ZnSb and ß-Zn4Sb3.

The structures of thermoelectric ZnSb and Zn4Sb3 have been studied extensively as a function of temperature but not in detail as a function of pressure. High pressure single crystal X-ray diffraction data allow structure refinements of ZnSb and Zn4Sb3 up to 12.8(2) GPa and 10.6(2) GPa, respectively, and in contrast to previous reports without any signs of phase transitions. At high pressure a redistribution of Zn in Zn4Sb3 is present, which is distinctly different from the thermal response of the structure. Fitting of an equation of state resulted in bulk moduli of 45(2) and 48(1) GPa for ZnSb and Zn4Sb3, respectively.

Optimized carbonation of magnesium silicate mineral for CO2 storage.

The global ambition of reducing the carbon dioxide emission makes sequestration reactions attractive as an option of storing CO2. One promising environmentally benign technology is based on forming thermodynamically stable carbonated minerals, with the drawback that these reactions usually have low conversion rates. In this work, the carbonation reaction of Mg rich olivine, Mg2SiO4, under supercritical conditions has been studied. The reaction produces MgCO3 at elevated temperature and pressure, with the addition of NaHCO3 and NaCl to improve the reaction rates. A sequestration rate of 70% was achieved within 2 h, using olivine particles of sub-10 µm, whereas 100% conversion was achieved in 4 h. This is one of the fastest complete conversions for this reaction reported to date. The CO2 sequestration rate is found to be highly dependent on the applied temperature and pressure, as well as the addition of NaHCO3. In contrast, adding NaCl was found to have limited effect on the reaction rate. The roles of NaHCO3 and NaCl as catalysts are discussed and especially how their effect changes with increased olivine particle size. The products have been characterized by Rietveld refinement of powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy revealing the formation of amorphous silica and micrometer-sized magnesium carbonate crystals.

Location of Cu(2+) in CHA zeolite investigated by X-ray diffraction using the Rietveld/maximum entropy method.

Accurate structural models of reaction centres in zeolite catalysts are a prerequisite for mechanistic studies and further improvements to the catalytic performance. The Rietveld/maximum entropy method is applied to synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction data on fully dehydrated CHA-type zeolites with and without loading of catalytically active Cu(2+) for the selective catalytic reduction of NO x with NH3. The method identifies the known Cu(2+) sites in the six-membered ring and a not previously observed site in the eight-membered ring. The sum of the refined Cu occupancies for these two sites matches the chemical analysis and thus all the Cu is accounted for. It is furthermore shown that approximately 80% of the Cu(2+) is located in the new 8-ring site for an industrially relevant CHA zeolite with Si/Al = 15.5 and Cu/Al = 0.45. Density functional theory calculations are used to corroborate the positions and identity of the two Cu sites, leading to the most complete structural description of dehydrated silicoaluminate CHA loaded with catalytically active Cu(2+) cations.

Fast direct synthesis and compaction of homogenous phase-pure thermoelectric Zn4Sb3.

Zn4Sb3 is among the cheapest high performance thermoelectric materials, and it is made of relatively nontoxic elements. Strong activities are aimed at developing commercial power generation modules based on Zn4Sb3 making it vital to develop fast reliable synthesis processes for high-quality material. Here direct synthesis and compaction of homogeneous phase-pure thermoelectric Zn4Sb3 by spark plasma sintering (SPS) has been developed. Compared with the traditional quench and press method, the complexity and process time of the new method is very significantly reduced (order of magnitude), making large-scale production feasible. A composition gradient is observed in the pellet along the axis of applied pressure and current. The homogeneity of the pressed pellets is studied as a function of the SPS parameters: sintering time, applied current, sintering temperature and applied pressure, and the mechanism behind the formation of the gradient is discussed. The key finding is that pure and homogeneous Zn4Sb3 pellets can be produced by adding an extra layer of elemental Zn foil to compensate the Zn migration.