Risk and protective factors that affect adolescent reproductive health in developing countries: a structured literature review.

The primary focus of this article is to determine which risk and protective factors are most important to adolescent reproductive health in developing countries. A comprehensive and systematic literature search was conducted on studies that examined factors in relation to the following outcomes: ever had premarital sex, condom use, pregnancy, early childbearing, sexually transmitted infections, and HIV. While the search identified over 11,000 publications, only 61 were retained for the final analysis. The results show that factors which were significantly associated to the outcomes were primarily related to the adolescents themselves. In fact, very few factors outside the individual were found to be related to sexual risk behaviours. This contrasts to similar research conducted among youth samples in the US. While this review confirms the strong need for a broader research base on the risk and protective factors related to adolescent sexual and reproductive health in developing countries, it also does identify key factors that can be addressed through innovative programmes and policies to help improve adolescent reproductive health in the developing world.

Cross-cultural surveys of adolescent health and behavior: progress and problems.

Adolescent health surveys administered in different countries or regions often are described as cross-cultural. Although most include youth of different ethnic and cultural groups, few attempt to define these constructs or to collect data that allow their characterization. This paper explores four challenges shared by large-scale surveys of adolescent health-related behaviors and beliefs. First, adolescent health investigators have used the terms culture and ethnicity loosely. The growing interest in contextual analysis demands standardization of the definitions as they apply to adolescents, followed by correct usage of the terms. Hypotheses regarding the associations between race, ethnicity, culture, health-related behaviors, and health outcomes should be clearly stated and incorporated into conceptual models. Second, cross-cultural analyses are interpretable only when the study designs and sampling methods provide adequate representation of cultural and ethnic minorities and when the survey items allow differentiation of factors related to race, ethnicity, culture, and socioeconomic factors. Third, cross-cultural research may expose traditions, beliefs, and behaviors that are supported by one population yet criticized by another. Investigators must recognize their own personal biases and must work collaboratively to analyze and interpret their data correctly. Fourth, generalizations about cultural/ethnic comparisons can evoke powerful emotional reactions. Interpretation and dissemination of research findings should be done sensitively and with the help of experts from the cultural/ethnic groups that have been studied.

Health-risk behaviors and protective factors among adolescents with mobility impairments and learning and emotional disabilities.

PURPOSE: To identify the risk involvement of three groups of young people with disabilities relative to a comparison group: mobility impairments, learning disabilities, and emotional disabilities. Protective factors are explored to identify which individual, family, and school factors are associated with diminished risk. METHODS: Analyses are based on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative sample of 20,780 seventh- through 12(th)-grade youth in the United States. Five negative health outcomes were studied: suicide attempts, sexual abuse, regular cigarette smoker, alcohol use, and marijuana use. For bivariate analyses Student's t-test and Chi-square were used, and logistic regressions were performed on all dichotomized dependent variables. RESULTS: For most risk behaviors studied, youth with disabilities were more involved than peers. Factors that predisposed to risk varied little between those with and without disabilities. Likewise, there was substantial consistency between groups as to protective factors. What distinguished each group of young people with disabilities from peers is that they reported significantly more exposure to risk factors and significantly fewer protective factors.

Health risk behaviors and associated risk and protective factors among Brazilian adolescents in Santos, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of health risk behaviors and identify risk and protective factors that are associated with several health risk behaviors (cigarette smoking, drug use, onset of sexual intercourse before age 15, pregnancy, gun-carrying, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts) among adolescents in Brazil, as well as to explore gender differences. METHODS: We estimated prevalence rates, evaluated bivariate associations, and explored multivariate analyses using logistic regression on data from a 1997 survey of adolescent health among 2059 eighth- and 10(th)-grade students in Santos, Brazil. RESULTS: Youth in Santos, Brazil report high rates of gun-carrying, suicidal thoughts and attempts, sexual intercourse, and pregnancy. Factors associated with diminished involvement for nearly all health risk behaviors, for both boys and girls, included having good family relationships, and feeling liked by friends and teachers. Factors associated with increases in nearly all health risk behaviors were: gun-carrying and gun availability in the home, drug use, and sexual abuse. CONCLUSIONS: Factors that are associated with a wide range of health risk behaviors among adolescents in Brazil appear to parallel those found in industrialized countries: access to guns, substance use, and sexual abuse. Likewise, connectedness to family, school, and peers is consistently the protective factor associated with diminished risky behaviors.

Development of adolescent self-report measures from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.

PURPOSE: To present a set of multi-item indicators and associated reliability estimates derived from early research with survey data from adolescents participating in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). METHODS: Add Health provides information on the health and health-related behaviors of a nationally representative sample of U.S. adolescents, as well as on individual-level and contextual factors that either promote young peoples' health or increase their health risk. Specifically, the 135-page in-home adolescent survey instrument includes multiple items intended to measure individual-level and social-environmental constructs relevant to adolescent health and well-being. This article details the development of a set of multi-item scales and indices from Add Health in-home adolescent survey data. These steps include identification of inconsistent responders, use of a split-halves approach to measurement validation, and use of a deductive approach in the development of scales and item composites. RESULTS: Estimates of internal consistency reliability suggest that many of the multi-item measures have acceptable levels of internal consistency across grade, gender, and race/ethnic groups included in this nationally representative sample of adolescents. In addition, moderate to high bivariate correlations between selected measures provide initial evidence of underlying latent constructs. CONCLUSIONS: This article provides adolescent health researchers with a set of methodologic procedures and measures developed in early research on the Add Health core adolescent data set.

The effects of race/ethnicity, income, and family structure on adolescent risk behaviors.

OBJECTIVES: The study examined the unique and combined contributions of race/ethnicity, income, and family structure to adolescent cigarette smoking, alcohol use, involvement with violence, suicidal thoughts or attempts, and sexual intercourse. METHODS: Analyses were based on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. A nationally representative sample of 7th to 12th graders participated in in-home interviews, as did a resident parent for 85.6% of the adolescent subjects. The final sample included 10,803 White, Black, and Hispanic 7th to 12th graders. RESULTS: White adolescents were more likely to smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, and attempt suicide in the younger years than were Black and Hispanic youths. Black youths were more likely to have had sexual intercourse; both Black and Hispanic youths were more likely than White teens to engage in violence. Controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, income, and family structure together explained no more than 10% of the variance in each of the 5 risk behaviors among younger adolescents and no more than 7% among older youths. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that when taken together, race/ethnicity, income, and family structure provide only limited understanding of adolescent risk behaviors.

Maternal expectations, mother-child connectedness, and adolescent sexual debut.

BACKGROUND: This study examined 3 hypotheses: (1) adolescents who perceive maternal disapproval of sexual activity will initiate sexual intercourse later than other adolescents; (2) adolescents who feel highly connected to their mothers will initiate sexual intercourse later than others; and (3) adolescents who perceive maternal disapproval of sexual intercourse are more likely than others to experience high levels of connectedness to their mothers, and to have mothers who state strong disapproval and talk more frequently with them about sex. DESIGN/SETTING: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a longitudinal study of US students in grades 7 through 12. The Add Health core in-home sample consisted of 12,105 students who completed in-school and in-home surveys at wave 1). Members of this sample completed a second in-home survey 9 to 18 months later at wave 2. PARTICIPANTS: Wave 1 and wave 2 in-home surveys were completed by 3322 core sample members who had reported being virgins at wave 1, and had resident mothers who completed wave 1 surveys. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Time to first sexual intercourse, adolescents' wave 2 reports of month/year of first sexual intercourse. RESULTS: Adolescents' perceptions of maternal disapproval and high levels of mother-child connectedness were directly and independently associated with delays in first sexual intercourse. Adolescents were most likely to perceive maternal disapproval if their mothers reported strong disapproval and if they reported being highly connected to their mothers. CONCLUSION: Perceived maternal disapproval of sexual intercourse, along with mother-child relationships characterized by high levels of warmth and closeness, may be important protective factors related to delay in adolescents' first sexual intercourse. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;154:809-816

Culture and the care of children with chronic conditions: their physicians' views.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about physicians' perceptions of the influence of culture on the health care of children with chronic and disabling conditions. OBJECTIVE: To identify physicians' perceptions of the impact of the family's ethnocultural background on the health care of school-aged children with chronic conditions and recommendations for improving care. DESIGN: Qualitative study in 2 midwestern metropolitan areas. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of 52 physicians nominated by 60 African American, Hispanic, and European American families of school-aged children with chronic conditions. METHODS: In-depth interviews were conducted with the physicians. Content analytic techniques were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: In 44% of the responses, the physicians reported that ethnocultural background did not influence the care the child received, noting that comparable care was provided to all of their patients. In 14% of the responses, the effect was unknown. The overall effect was negative in 26% of the responses and positive in 16%. Physicians' recommendations focused on 4 topics: improving the training and education of health care professionals and families; ensuring good communication between the child, family, and health care professionals; supporting families; and improving the access and provision of services for children from diverse cultural backgrounds. CONCLUSION: Although the majority of participants reported that ethnocultural background did not affect the care the child received from the health care system, physicians' recommendations reflected awareness of the influence of culture on the care of children with chronic conditions and the need for further training on this issue.

Family risk factors associated with adolescent pregnancy: study of a group of adolescent girls and their families in Ecuador.

PURPOSE: To identify characteristics within the family that were associated with adolescent pregnancy in a group of adolescent girls in Quito, Ecuador. METHODS: Of 135 female adolescents (12-19 years of age), 47 were pregnant and seen at the adolescent prenatal care clinic at an inner city hospital in Quito, and 88 were students from schools located within the same geographic area. Family variables were compared for pregnant and nonpregnant adolescents using chi-square, Student's t-test, and analysis of variance. RESULTS: More nonpregnant adolescents lived with their biological parents when compared with their pregnant peers (p < .002). Pregnant adolescents reported lower mother-daughter and father-daughter communication (p < .02), lesser life satisfaction and happiness in general, and more school and economic difficulties (p < .001). They were less likely to find support for their problems in or outside the family (p < .0001) and showed higher levels of depression and sexual abuse than their nonpregnant peers (68.8% vs. 34.5%, and 14.9% vs. 4.5%, respectively). Nonpregnant adolescents showed higher school performance and expectations regarding school achievement and future perspectives (p < .001). Values such as respect for others and religiosity were higher among nonpregnant adolescents (p < .0001). Parental education was lower in the families of pregnant adolescents (p < .05). Among nonpregnant adolescents, both parents worked outside the home (p < .006), whereas mothers of pregnant adolescents usually stayed at home. CONCLUSION: The current study showed that parental separation or divorce, and poor parent-daughter communication were associated with adolescent pregnancy. Families of nonpregnant adolescents had a higher educational level, and both parents worked to provide financial support to the family in an environment where family authority is shared by both parents. There were also better problem-solving strategies and parent-daughter communication, higher levels of cohesion, connectedness, and life satisfaction in general, and higher future expectations.

PIP: This paper presents the study on the family risk factors associated with adolescent pregnancy among adolescent girls and their families in Quito, Ecuador. The study aimed to identify characteristics within the family associated with adolescent pregnancy. A total of 135 female adolescents (aged 12-19 years) and their families were separately interviewed. 47 were pregnant and attending prenatal care at an inner city hospital in Quito, and 88 were nonpregnant students from schools located within the same geographical area. Results showed that when compared to their pregnant peers, more nonpregnant adolescents lived with their biological parents (p 0.002); they showed higher school performance (p 0.001); and more values and religiosity (p 0.0001). Pregnant adolescents reported lower mother-daughter and father-daughter communication (p 0.02), lesser life satisfaction in general, and more school and economic difficulties (p 0.001). Moreover, they were less likely to find support for their problems in or outside the family (p 0.0001) and showed higher levels of depression (68.8%) and sexual abuse (14.9%). Parental education was higher in the families of nonpregnant adolescents and both parents worked to provide financial support for the family.

Suicide attempts among American Indian and Alaska Native youth: risk and protective factors.

CONTEXT: American Indians and Alaska Natives have the highest suicide rates of all ethnic groups in the United States, and suicide is the second leading cause of death for American Indian and Alaska Native youth. OBJECTIVE: To identify risk and protective factors associated with suicide attempts among native male and female adolescents. DESIGN: The 1990 National American Indian Adolescent Health Survey. SETTING: Schools of reservation communities in 8 Indian Health Service areas. PARTICIPANTS: Eleven thousand six hundred sixty-six 7th- through 12th-grade American Indian and Alaska native youth. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Responses were compared among adolescents with and without a self-reported history of attempted suicide. Independent variables included measures of community, family, and individual characteristics. Separate analyses were conducted for boys and girls. RESULTS: Ever attempting suicide was reported by 21.8% of girls and 11.8% of boys. By logistic regression done on boys and girls separately, suicide attempts were associated with friends or family members attempting or completing suicide; somatic symptoms; physical or sexual abuse; health concerns; using alcohol, marijuana, or other drugs; a history of being in a special education class; treatment for emotional problems; gang involvement; and gun availability. For male and female youth, discussing problems with friends or family, emotional health, and connectedness to family were protective against suicide attempts. The estimated probability of attempting suicide increased dramatically as the number of risk factors to which an adolescent was exposed increased; however, increasing protective factors was more effective at reducing the probability of a suicide attempt than was decreasing risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: A history of attempted suicide was associated with several risk and protective factors. In addition to targeting youth at increased risk, preventive efforts should include promotion of protective factors in the lives of all youth in this population.

Sexual intercourse, abuse and pregnancy among adolescent women: does sexual orientation make a difference?

CONTEXT: Although a limited amount of research has retrospectively explored the childhood and adolescent heterosexual experiences of lesbians, little is known about the prevalence of heterosexual behavior and related risk factors or about pregnancy histories among lesbian and bisexual teenagers. METHODS: A secondary analysis was conducted using responses from a subsample of 3,816 students who completed the 1987 Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey. Behaviors, risk factors and pregnancy histories were compared among adolescents who identified themselves as lesbian or bisexual, as unsure of their sexual orientation and as heterosexual. RESULTS: Overall, bisexual or lesbian respondents were about as likely as heterosexual women ever to have had intercourse (33% and 29%, respectively), but they had a significantly higher prevalence of pregnancy (12%) and physical or sexual abuse (19-22%) than heterosexual or unsure adolescents. Among sexually experienced respondents, bisexual or lesbian and heterosexual women reported greater use of ineffective contraceptives (12-15% of those who used a method) than unsure adolescents (9%); bisexual or lesbian respondents were the most likely to have frequent intercourse (22%, compared with 15-17% of the other groups). In the sample overall, among those who were sexually experienced and among those who had ever been pregnant, bisexual or lesbian women were the most likely to have engaged in prostitution during the previous year. CONCLUSIONS: Providers of reproductive health care and family planning services should not assume that pregnant teenagers are heterosexual or that adolescents who say they are bisexual, lesbian or unsure of their sexual orientation are not in need of family planning counseling. Further research should explore the interactions between adolescent sexual identity development and sexual risk behaviors.

PIP: The influence of sexual orientation on adolescents' sexual behaviors and pregnancy histories was investigated in a subsample of 3816 female adolescents, 12-19 years old, who completed the 1987 Minnesota (US) Adolescent Health Survey. 182 identified themselves as bisexual or lesbian, 1753 were unsure of their sexual orientation, and 1881 were heterosexual. Bisexual/lesbian respondents were about as likely as heterosexual respondents ever to have had intercourse (33.0% and 29.3%, respectively), but they had a significantly higher prevalence of childhood physical abuse (19.3% vs. 11.9%) and sexual abuse (22.1% vs. 15.3%) than their heterosexual counterparts. Among sexually experienced respondents, 29.8% of bisexual/lesbian adolescents, 43.5% of those unsure about their identity, and 23.1% of heterosexuals used no contraception and 12.3%, 8.5%, and 14.5%, respectively, of those who used contraception used an ineffective method. 12.3% of bisexual/lesbian women, 6.1% of those unsure about their sexual orientation, and 5.3% of heterosexual adolescents had experienced a pregnancy; 2 or more pregnancies were reported by 23.5%, 15.1%, and 9.8%, respectively, of ever-pregnant teens. Finally, 9.7% of bisexual/lesbian women had engaged in prostitution in the year preceding the survey, compared with 1.9% of heterosexuals and 3.4% of those unsure about their orientation. These findings suggest that adolescents who identify themselves as lesbian or bisexual are at high risk of pregnancy and poor contraceptive practices. Providers of reproductive health care and family planning services should not assume that their pregnant adolescent patients are heterosexual or that lesbian clients or those unsure of their sexual orientation are not in need of contraception.

Correlates of physical and emotional health among Native American adolescents.

PURPOSE: To examine the risk and protective factors among Native American youth that are correlated with both physical and emotional health. METHODS: The study was based upon the National American Indian Adolescent Health Survey (n = 13,454), conducted using students self-categorized into a ranked variable of physical health ("poor," "fair," "good," or "excellent") and a continuous variable of emotional health based upon a nine-item unidimensional scale (overall Cronbach's alpha of .74). Twenty-nine variables derived from resilience theory encompassing both risk and protective factors were selected. Associations with physical and emotional health were examined using linear regression analysis. RESULTS: Identified protective factors explained approximately 30% of variance for emotional health, with family caring explaining nearly 15% of variance for both genders. The most significant associations for emotional health for females were family caring, body pride, feelings about school, and worries or concerns particularly about violence. For males, most significant protective factors included family caring, body pride, parental expectations, and type of sexual attraction. For physical health, the identified variables explained only 16% of variance for both genders. Body pride was the most significant association, explaining 10% of variance. CONCLUSIONS: Connection to family remains a consistently powerful factor in the lives of these youth. Other associations including body pride and parental expectations may help in the exploration and buffering of emotional health among American Indian youth.

Abortion among adolescents in Cuba.

PURPOSE: To understand which adolescents in Havana, Cuba, seek abortions and reasons for pregnancy termination. METHODS: The sample included all adolescents (n = 248) under the age of 20 years who sought pregnancy termination over a 1-month period in 1995. The participants completed a questionnaire exploring a range of issues including age of onset of sexual intercourse, pregnancy history, and reasons for pregnancy termination. RESULTS: There was no difference in age of onset of sexual intercourse between pregnant adolescents who did and did not seek an abortion. Three fourths of all adolescents who aborted a pregnancy were students, and interruption of studies was a major reason for pregnancy termination. Other reasons included being a single mother and poor socioeconomic conditions. More than half of those who sought to terminate their pregnancy did so at a clinic outside of the community in which they lived. CONCLUSION: As in other countries, in Cuba, concerns over education interruption remain the predominant reason for abortion. Likewise, while abortion has been legal and widely available in Cuba since 1969, there remains sufficient stigma so that over half of young women seek pregnancy termination outside their community of residence.

Lessons learned about adolescent nutrition from the Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey.

In 1986-1987, more than 30,000 adolescents completed the Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey, a comprehensive assessment of adolescent health status, health behaviors, and psychosocial factors. Although the survey included relatively few items on nutrition-related issues, a wealth of knowledge about adolescent nutrition was gained. Lessons learned from a decade of subsequent analyses of data collected in the survey and implications for working with youth are summarized in this article. Major concerns identified included high prevalence rates of inadequate intake of fruits, vegetables, and dairy products; unhealthful weight-control practices; and overweight status. For example, inadequate fruit intake was reported by 28% of the adolescents and inadequate vegetable intake was reported by 36%. Among female adolescents, 12% reported chronic dieting, 30% reported binge eating, 12% reported self-induced vomiting, and 2% reported using diuretics or laxatives. Some of the risk factors for inadequate food intake patterns or unhealthful weight-control practices included low socioeconomic status, minority status, chronic illness, poor school achievement, low family connectedness, weight dissatisfaction, overweight, homosexual orientation among male adolescents, and use of health-compromising behaviors. To improve adolescent eating behaviors, the results suggest a need for innovative outreach strategies that include educational and environmental approaches. Dietitians play a key role in developing interventions and promoting research in the field of adolescent nutrition.

Demographics of sexual orientation among American-Indian adolescents.

Self-report of sexual orientation and sexual behavior was compared for 12,978 reservation-based American-Indian and 11,356 rural Anglo-American adolescents. Findings included a significantly higher prevalence of homosexual, bisexual, and unsure responses among American Indians. However, a larger nonresponse rate for American-Indian adolescents raises questions about the cultural relevance of the survey method, and underscores the need for development of more culturally sensitive research tools and methods.

Sexual orientation, sexual behaviors, and pregnancy among American Indian adolescents.

PURPOSE: A recent study found a disproportionate number of pregnancies among Euro-American lesbian and bisexual adolescents compared to heterosexual peers. American Indian adolescents have reported higher prevalence of gay/lesbian/bisexual orientations than Euro-Americans; do they also report higher prevalence of pregnancy? METHODS: The study assessed prevalence of teen pregnancy and related factors by sexual orientation among sexually experienced, reservation-based American Indian adolescent males (n = 2056) and females (n = 1693) who participated in a national school-based survey in 1991. Self-reported orientation was classified as heterosexual, gay/lesbian/bisexual, and "unsure" of orientation. RESULTS: Gay/bisexual males were more likely than other males to report early heterosexual intercourse (<14 years), more consistent contraception, and a higher prevalence of abuse and running away (p < 0.05 to p < 0.0001). Likewise, lesbian/bisexual females were more likely to report early onset of heterosexual intercourse, more frequent intercourse, and running away. Sexual or physical abuse did not vary by orientation for females. Prevalence of pregnancy also did not vary by orientation (males, 18.6% gay/bisexual vs. 10.4% "unsure" vs. 11.8% heterosexual; females, 25.0% lesbian/bisexual vs. 22.1% "unsure" vs. 21.9% heterosexual). For lesbian/bisexual females, no variables were significantly associated with pregnancy history; for "unsure" females, pregnancy was associated with contraceptive frequency and early onset of heterosexual activity. For heterosexual females, age, intercourse frequency, and physical abuse were associated. For gay/bisexual males, intercourse frequency, ineffective contraception, and physical abuse were associated with involvement in a pregnancy; for "unsure" and heterosexual males, most items except ineffective contraception were related to pregnancy involvement history. CONCLUSIONS: Although prevalence of pregnancy is similar, findings show group differences in associated risk factors by sexual orientation. Interventions to reduce pregnancy among American Indian adolescents should include assessment of sexual orientation and behavioral risk factors.