Brain-specific expression of an exogenous gene after i.v. administration.

The treatment of brain diseases with gene therapy requires the gene to be expressed throughout the central nervous system, and this is possible by using gene targeting technology that delivers the gene across the blood-brain barrier after i.v. administration of a nonviral formulation of the gene. The plasmid DNA is targeted to brain with pegylated immunoliposomes (PILs) using a targeting ligand such as a peptidomimetic mAb, which binds to a transporting receptor on the blood-brain barrier. The present studies adapt the PIL gene targeting technology to the mouse by using the rat 8D3 mAb to the mouse transferrin receptor. Tissue-specific expression in brain and peripheral organs of different exogenous genes (beta-galactosidase, luciferase) is examined at 1-3 days after i.v. injection in adult mice of the exogenous gene packaged in the interior of 8D3-PIL. The expression plasmid is driven either by a broadly expressed promoter, simian virus 40, or by a brain-specific promoter taken from the 5' flanking sequence of the human glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) gene. The transgene is expressed in both brain and peripheral tissues when the simian virus 40 promoter is used, but the expression of the exogenous gene is confined to the brain when the transgene is under the influence of the brain-specific GFAP promoter. Confocal microscopy colocalizes immunoreactive bacterial beta-galactosidase with immunoreactive GFAP in brain astrocytes. These studies indicate that tissue-specific gene expression in brain is possible after the i.v. administration of a nonviral vector with the combined use of gene targeting technology and tissue-specific gene promoters.

Receptor-mediated gene targeting to tissues in vivo following intravenous administration of pegylated immunoliposomes.

PURPOSE: Gene therapy has been limited by the immunogenicity of viral vectors, by the inefficiency of cationic liposomes, and by the rapid degradation in vivo following the injection of naked DNA. The present work describes a new approach that enables the non-invasive, non-viral gene therapy of the brain and peripheral organs following an intravenous injection. METHODS: The plasmid DNA encoding beta-galactosidase is packaged in the interior of neutral liposomes, which are stabilized for in vivo use by surface conjugation with polyethyleglycol (PEG). The tips of about 1% of the PEG strands are attached to a targeting monoclonal antibody (MAb), which acts as a "molecular Trojan Horse" to ferry the liposome carrying the gene across the biological barriers of the brain and other organs. The MAb targets the transferrin receptor, which is enriched at both the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and in peripheral tissues, such as liver and spleen. RESULTS: Expression of the exogenous gene in brain, liver, and spleen was demonstrated with beta-galactosidase histochemistry, which showed persistence of gene expression for at least 6 days after a single intravenous injection of the pegylated immunoliposomes. The persistence of the transgene was confirmed by Southern blot analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Widespread expression of an exogenous gene in brain and peripheral tissues is induced with a single intravenous administration of plasmid DNA packaged in the interior of pegylated immunoliposomes. The liposomes are formulated to target specific receptor systems that enable receptor-mediated endocytosis of the complex into cells in vivo. This approach allows for non-invasive, non-viral gene therapy of the brain.

Differential kinetics of transport of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine and adenosine via concentrative Na+ nucleoside transporter CNT2 cloned from rat blood-brain barrier.

The concentrative Na+ nucleoside transporter type 2 (CNT2), cloned from a rat blood-brain barrier cDNA library, yields very high flux ratios for purine nucleosides after expression in frog oocytes. This high activity of the rat CNT2 produced from the blood-brain barrier-derived cDNA, designated clone A-11, enabled a kinetic analysis of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine transport via the rat CNT2. CNT2 transported both adenosine and 2',3'-dideoxyinosine. The 2',3'-dideoxyinosine transport parameters included a Km of 29.2 +/- 8.3 microM, a V(max) of 0.40 +/- 0.11 pmol/oocyte/min, and a constant of nonsaturable transport (KD) of 15.7 +/- 0.6 nl/oocyte/min. The 2',3'-dideoxyinosine Vmax was 27-fold lower than the adenosine Vmax and the 2',3'-dideoxyinosine KD was >15-fold greater than the KD of adenosine transport. Adenosine inhibited both the saturable component of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine transport with a K(I) of 14.8 +/- 1.6 microM, and inhibited the nonsaturable component of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine transport. Both the saturable and nonsaturable components of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine transport were sodium-dependent with a sodium K0.5 of 8.7 +/- 0.9 mM, and a Hill coefficient of 1.00 +/- 0.10. The transport of 2',3'-dideoxyinosine was strongly inhibited by thymidine, whereas thymidine was a weak inhibitor of adenosine transport via rat CNT2. Thymidine was transported by rat CNT2 with a Km = 130 +/- 44 microM and a Vmax = 1.7 +/- 0.5 pmol/oocyte/min. These studies provide evidence for asymmetric transport sites on rat CNT2, where 2',3'-dideoxyinosine and thymidine compete selectively at a low Vmax site on the transporter, whereas adenosine is transported at a high Vmax site.

Cloned blood-brain barrier adenosine transporter is identical to the rat concentrative Na+ nucleoside cotransporter CNT2.

Adenosine transport into brain is regulated by the activity of the adenosine transporter located at the brain capillary endothelial wall, which forms the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vivo. To facilitate cloning of BBB adenosine transporters, poly A+ RNA was purified from isolated rat brain capillaries for production of a rat BBB cDNA library in the pSPORT vector. The cloned RNA (cRNA) generated from in vitro transcription of this library was injected into frog oocytes followed by measurement of [3H]-adenosine uptake. After dilutional cloning, a full-length, 2905-nucleotide adenosine transporter cDNA, designated clone A-11, was isolated. The A-11 clone yielded [3H]-adenosine flux ratios of 400 to 500 after injection of cRNA in oocytes. The adenosine uptake was sodium-dependent and insensitive to inhibition by S-(4-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine (NBTI). The Km and Vmax of adenosine transport in the cRNA-injected oocytes were 23.1 +/- 3.7 micromol/L and 10.8 +/- 0.9 pmol/oocyte. min. The K0.5 for sodium was 2.4 +/- 0.1 mmol/L, with a Hill coefficient (n) of 1.06 +/- 0.07. DNA sequence analysis indicated the rat BBB A-11 adenosine cDNA was identical to rat concentrative nucleoside transporter type 2 (CNT2). The adenosine transporter activity of the rat BBB A-11 CNT2 clone is 50-fold more active than previously reported rat CNT2 clones. In summary, these studies describe the expression cloning of CNT2 from a rat BBB library and show that the pattern of sodium dependency and NBTI insensitivity of the cloned CNT2 are identical to patterns of adenosine transport across the BBB in vivo. These results suggest that BBB adenosine transport in vivo is mediated by CNT2, which would make CNT2 one of the few known sodium-dependent cotransporters that mediate substrate transport across the BBB in the blood to brain direction.

Amplification of blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter gene expression by brain-derived peptides.

Glucose is a critical nutrient for the brain, and the transport of this hexose from blood to brain is mediated by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) GLUT1 glucose transporter. The expression of the BBB-GLUT1 gene is compromised in different pathological conditions and it is modulated by brain trophic factors. The brain-derived peptide preparation Cerebrolysin (Cl, EBEWE, Austria) increases the expression of the BBB-GLUT1 via mRNA stabilization. In order to gain more insights into the mechanism of BBB-GLUT1 gene regulation, the present investigation studied the effect of Cl on the expression of both the GLUT1 protein and GLUT1 reporter genes in brain endothelial cultured cells (ECL). Cl markedly increased the expression of reporter genes containing GLUT1 translational control elements and cis-acting elements involved in the stabilization of the GLUT1 mRNA transcript in a dose dependent manner. Cl produced only marginal effects on the reporter gene control lacking the GLUT1 regulatory elements. In parallel experiments, Cl markedly increased the uptake of 3H-2-deoxy-D-glucose and the levels of the GLUT1 protein measured by ELISA. Data presented here demonstrate: (i) that Cl increases the expression of BBB-GLUT1 reporter genes containing regulatory cis-elements involved in the stabilization and translation of the GLUT1 transcript; (ii) that the effect on both regulatory elements cooperates to increase gene expression; and (iii) that the increased levels of the BBB-GLUT1 reporter genes in Cl-treated ECL cells are associated with an increase in the glucose uptake and in the expression of the GLUT1 protein.

Blood-brain barrier genomics.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is formed by the brain microvascular endothelium, and the unique transport properties of the BBB are derived from tissue-specific gene expression within this cell. The current studies developed a gene microarray approach specific for the BBB by purifying the initial mRNA from isolated rat brain capillaries to generate tester cDNA. A polymerase chain reaction-based subtraction cloning method, suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH), was used, and the BBB cDNA was subtracted with driver cDNA produced from mRNA isolated from rat liver and kidney. Screening 5% of the subtracted tester cDNA resulted in identification of 50 gene products and more than 80% of those were selectively expressed at the BBB; these included novel gene sequences not found in existing databases, ESTs, and known genes that were not known to be selectively expressed at the BBB. Genes in the latter category include tissue plasminogen activator, insulin-like growth factor-2, PC-3 gene product, myelin basic protein, regulator of G protein signaling 5, utrophin, IkappaB, connexin-45, the class I major histocompatibility complex, the rat homologue of the transcription factors hbrm or EZH1, and organic anion transporting polypeptide type 2. Knowledge of tissue-specific gene expression at the BBB could lead to new targets for brain drug delivery and could elucidate mechanisms of brain pathology at the microvascular level.

Antisense imaging of gene expression in the brain in vivo.

Antisense radiopharmaceuticals could be used to image gene expression in the brain in vivo, should these polar molecules be made transportable through the blood-brain barrier. The present studies describe an antisense imaging agent comprised of an iodinated peptide nucleic acid (PNA) conjugated to a monoclonal antibody to the rat transferrin receptor by using avidin-biotin technology. The PNA was a 16-mer antisense to the sequence around the methionine initiation codon of the luciferase mRNA. C6 rat glioma cells were permanently transfected with a luciferase expression plasmid, and C6 experimental brain tumors were developed in adult rats. The expression of the luciferase transgene in the tumors in vivo was confirmed by measurement of luciferase enzyme activity in the tumor extract. The [(125)I]PNA conjugate was injected intravenously in anesthetized animals with brain tumors and killed 2 h later for frozen sectioning of brain and film autoradiography. No image of the luciferase gene expression was obtained after the administration of either the unconjugated antiluciferase PNA or a PNA conjugate that was antisense to the mRNA of a viral transcript. In contrast, tumors were imaged in all rats administered the [(125)I]PNA that was antisense to the luciferase sequence and was conjugated to the targeting antibody. In conclusion, these studies demonstrate gene expression in the brain in vivo can be imaged with antisense radiopharmaceuticals that are conjugated to a brain drug-targeting system.

Antisense-mediated down-regulation of the human huntingtin gene.

The present study determines whether the expression of the huntingtin gene might be subject to antisense (AS)-mediated down-regulation. A series of AS oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) complementary to the huntingtin transcript [i.e., nucleotide (nt) -25 to 35] were designed and synthesized, and the AS efficacy was investigated by using a combination of in vitro transcription and translation to mimic in vivo conditions. An oligomer directed to nt -1 to 15 (ODN III) markedly reduced the incorporation of [(3)H]leucine into the huntingtin gene product in a dose-dependent manner (ED(50) of approximately 11.5 microM). ODNs that overlap with ODN III on both 5'- and 3'-flanking regions also produced translation arrest of the huntingtin protein; however, the AS-mediated effect of these ODNs represented approximately 50% of the effect of ODN III. In contrast, an ODN directed to nt 19 to 35 had no AS effect. The efficacy of ODN III also was investigated in an inducible, stably transfected PC-12 cell line expressing a truncated huntingtin exon 1 protein. In accordance with the cell free translation studies, ODN III (1-10 microM) markedly decreased the abundance of the huntingtin-green fluorescence fusion protein to 40 to 46% of the control levels. In summary, a series of putative AS candidates were screened for down-regulation of the huntingtin gene, and an ODN molecule directed to the methionine initiation codon was identified with maximum AS effects.

Post-transcription modulation of the blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter by brain-derived factors.

Brain-derived peptides or factors in the brain-derived preparation Cerebrolysin (Cl, EBEWE, Austria) increase the expression of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) GLUT1 glucose transporter via mRNA stabilization. The post-transcriptional regulation of the BBB-GLUT1 gene is principally exerted by interaction of cis-regulatory elements located in the 3'-untranslated region of GLUT1 mRNA with cellular trans-acting factors (TAF). UV-cross linking and RNase T1 protection studies demonstrated the presence of 2 major GLUT1 RNA-TAF complexes named p88 (stabilizing) and the p44 (destabilizing). The p88 TAF was detected in cytosol of brain endothelial cultured cells (ECL) as a duplex of molecular weight of approximately 88 kDa, which were defined A and B (high and low MW, respectively). Cl markedly increased the abundance of the BBB-GLUT1 p88 TAF (complex B) in ECL cells, without changes in the levels of the p88 complex A. This was also confirmed by antisense oligomer displacement of the GLUT1 RNA-TAF complex formation. Cl per se, did not bind to the GLUT1 mRNA, nor induced the expression of the destabilizing p44 TAF. Data presented here suggest that the increased stabilization of the GLUT1 transcript induced by Cl is associated with augmented levels of the GLUT1 stabilizing p88 TAF.

Selective Lutheran glycoprotein gene expression at the blood-brain barrier in normal brain and in human brain tumors.

The Lutheran (LU) glycoprotein was shown to be a specific marker of brain capillary endothelium, which forms the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vivo. A 1.5 kb partial cDNA encoding the bovine LU was isolated from a bovine brain capillary cDNA library. Sequence analysis showed that the bovine and human LU had a 75% and 79% identity in the amino acid and nucleotide sequences, respectively. Northern blot analysis demonstrated a very high level of gene expression of the LU transcript in freshly isolated bovine brain capillaries, but no measurable LU mRNA in whole bovine brain. The high level of LU gene expression was maintained when bovine brain capillary endothelium was grown in tissue culture. Because many BBB specific genes are downregulated in tissue culture and in brain tumors, the expression of the LU mRNA and immunoactive LU protein was investigated in primary and metastatic human brain tumors. Immunocytochemistry of fresh frozen human brain and human brain tumors showed abundant immunostaining of brain capillary endothelium. Northern blot analysis showed the presence of LU transcripts in a panel of primary and metastatic human brain tumors. These studies demonstrated that the LU glycoprotein was a novel new marker of the BBB, and unlike other BBB specific genes, there was a persistent gene expression of the LU glycoprotein both in brain capillary endothelial cells grown in culture and in the endothelium of capillaries perfusing human brain cancer.

Transport across the primate blood-brain barrier of a genetically engineered chimeric monoclonal antibody to the human insulin receptor.

PURPOSE: Brain drug targeting may be achieved by conjugating drugs, that normally do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), to brain drug delivery vectors. The murine 83-14 MAb to the human insulin receptor (HIR) is a potential brain drug targeting vector that could be used in humans, if this MAb was genetically engineered to form a chimeric antibody. where most of the immunogenic murine sequences are replaced by human antibody sequence. METHODS: The present studies describe the production of the gene for the chimeric HIRMAb, expression and characterization of the protein, radiolabeling of the chimeric HIRMAb with 111-indium and 125-iodine, and quantitative autoradiography of living primate brain taken 2 hours after intravenous administration of the [111In]chimeric HIRMAb. RESULTS: The chimeric HIRMAb had identical affinity to the target antigen as the murine HIRMAb based on Western blotting and immunoradiometric assay using partially purified HIR affinity purified from serum free conditioned media produced by a CHO cell line secreting soluble HIR. The [125I]chimeric HIRMAb was avidly bound to isolated human brain capillaries, and this binding was blocked by the murine HIRMAb. The [111In]chimeric HIRMAb was administered intravenously to an anesthetized Rhesus monkey, and the 2 hour brain scan showed robust uptake of the chimeric antibody by the living primate brain. CONCLUSIONS: A genetically engineered chimeric HIRMAb has been produced, and the chimeric antibody has identical reactivity to the human and primate BBB HIR as the original murine antibody. This chimeric HIRMAb may be used in humans for drug targeting through the BBB of neurodiagnostic or neurotherapeutic drugs that normally do not cross the BBB.

The drug cerebrolysin and its peptide fraction E021 increase the abundance of the blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter in brains of young and old rats.

The brain-derived peptidergic drug Cerebrolysin has been found to support the survival of neurons in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we investigated the effects of Cerebrolysin and its peptide preparation E021 on spatial learning and memory, as well as on the abundance of the blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter (GLUT1) in 2-month-old and 24-month-old rats. Young rats were treated with the drugs or saline (2.5 ml/kg/day) daily on postnatal days 1-7, and old rats for 19 consecutive days. For behavioural testing the Morris water maze was used. The abundance of GLUT1 was determined in brain slices by immunocytochemistry. Quantification of the density of the GLUT1 immunostaining was performed using light microscopy and a computerised image analysing system. All drug-treated rats, young and old, exhibit shorter escape latencies in the water maze, on all testing days (p < 0.01), indicating improved cognitive performance. Immunohistochemical data show an age-related decrease of the density of GLUTI (p < 0.05). In young animals, the administration of the drugs led to an increase of the abundance of GLUT1 in all experimental groups (p < 0.01). In old rats, the treatment with Cerebrolysin, but not with E021, resulted in an increase in the immunoreactive GLUT1 (p < 0.01). The elevated abundance of GLUT1 after the administration of both peptidergic substances might be supportive for the cognitive effects of this drug, by causing an improved nutritional supply of glucose to the neurons.

Cloning and expression in Pichia pastoris of a genetically engineered single chain antibody against the rat transferrin receptor.

The present investigation describes the construction of a genetically engineered single chain antibody (scFv) against the rat transferrin receptor (OX26), and demonstrates that this scFv antibody can be fully processed and expressed as a soluble secreted molecule in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. Restriction endonuclease sites located at both 5'- and 3'-flanking regions of OX26 coding region in the prokaryote pOPE-OX26 vector were engineered to incorporate yeast compatible restriction endonuclease sites (i.e. EcoRI and SmaI or AvrII). The modified OX26 cDNA was subcloned into the Pichia expression vectors pPIC9 and pHIL-S1. An OX26 scFv high producer clone [GS115 His+ Mut+ (pPIC-OX26 SacI)] was isolated and used for large-scale production and characterization. Because the engineered scFv contains both a c-myc tag and a (His)5 tail, the OX26 scFv was purified to homogeneity by immobilized metal affinity chromatography. The identity of the OX26 scFv was confirmed by Western blot analyses with both anti c-myc and anti poly-His antibodies. Minor immunoreactive bands corresponding to hyperglycosylated and partially processed alpha-factor leader prosequence were also detected in the purified OX26 scFv, and these contaminants were markedly reduced when the expression of the OX26 scFv was performed in minimal methanol medium buffered with phosphate at pH = 7. The present investigation suggests that this expression system may be useful for the production of anti-receptor single chain antibodies that can be used as brain drug delivery vectors.

In vivo upregulation of the blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter by brain-derived peptides.

Glucose is the critical metabolic fluid for the brain, and the transport of this nutrient from blood to brain is limited by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) GLUT1 glucose transporter. The expression of the BBB-GLUT1 gene is augmented in brain endothelial cultured cells incubated with brain-derived trophic factors and the brain-derived peptide preparation Cerebrolysin (C1, EBEWE, Austria). The aim of the present investigation was to determine if C1 induces similar changes in the expression of the BBB-GLUT1 gene following its administration to rats in vivo. The BBB glucose transporter activity was investigated with the intracarotid artery perfusion technique using [3H]diazepam as cerebral blood flow marker. The acute or chronic administration of C1 markedly increased the brain permeability surface area of D-[14C]glucose compared to controls (D-[14C]glucose/[3H]diazepam ratio, 1.6- to 1.9-fold increase in frontal cortex, P < 0.05). Increased activity of the BBB glucose transporter was correlated with a significant rise in the abundance of the BBB-GLUT1 protein measured by both Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry, and with a decrease in the transcript levels of this transporter. Data presented here demonstrate that the in vivo administration of Cl increases the transport of glucose from blood to brain via BBB-GLUT1 gene expression.

Genetically engineered brain drug delivery vectors: cloning, expression and in vivo application of an anti-transferrin receptor single chain antibody-streptavidin fusion gene and protein.

A single chain Fv antibody-streptavidin fusion protein was expressed and purified from bacterial inclusion bodies following cloning of the genes encoding the variable region of the heavy chain and light chain of the murine OX26 monoclonal antibody to the rat transferrin receptor. The latter undergoes receptor mediated transcytosis through the brain capillary endothelial wall in vivo, which makes up the blood-brain barrier (BBB); therefore, the OX26 monoclonal antibody and its single chain Fv analog may act as brain drug delivery vectors in vivo. Attachment of biotinylated drugs to the antibody vector is facilitated by production of the streptavidin fusion protein. The bi-functionality of the OX26 single chain Fv antibody-streptavidin fusion protein was retained, as the product both bound biotin and the rat transferrin receptor in vitro and in vivo, based on pharmacokinetic and brain uptake analyses in anesthetized rats. The attachment of biotin-polyethyleneglycol-fluorescein to the OX26 single chain Fv antibody-streptavidin fusion protein resulted in illumination of isolated rat brain capillaries in confocal fluorescent microscopy. In conclusion, these studies demonstrate that genetically engineered single chain Fv antibody-streptavidin fusion proteins may be used for non-invasive neurotherapeutic delivery to the brain using endogenous BBB transport systems such as the transferrin receptor.

Selective expression of the large neutral amino acid transporter at the blood-brain barrier.

Amino acid supply in brain is regulated by the activity of the large neutral amino acid transporter (LAT) at the brain capillary endothelial cell, which forms the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vivo. Bovine BBB poly(A)(+) RNA was isolated from 2.0 kg of fresh bovine brain and size fractionated on a sucrose density gradient, and a size-fractionated bovine BBB cDNA library in the pSPORT vector was prepared. The full-length cDNA encoding the bovine BBB LAT was isolated from this library, and the predicted amino acid sequence was 89-92% identical to the LAT1 isoform. The bovine BBB LAT1 mRNA produced a 10-fold enhancement in tryptophan transport into frog oocytes coinjected with bovine BBB LAT1 mRNA and the mRNA for 4F2hc, which encodes the heavy chain of the heterodimer. Tryptophan transport into the mRNA-injected oocytes was sodium independent and was specifically inhibited by other large neutral amino acids, and the K(m) of tryptophan transport was 31.5 +/- 5.5 microM. Northern blotting with the bovine BBB LAT1 cDNA showed that the LAT1 mRNA is 100-fold higher in isolated bovine brain capillaries compared with C6 rat glioma cells or rat brain, and the LAT1 mRNA was not detected in rat liver, heart, lung, or kidney. These studies show that the LAT1 transcript is selectively expressed at the BBB compared with other tissues, and the abundance of the LAT1 mRNA at the BBB is manyfold higher than that of transcripts such as the 4F2hc antigen, actin, or the Glut1 glucose transporter.

hnRNP A2 and hnRNP L bind the 3'UTR of glucose transporter 1 mRNA and exist as a complex in vivo.

Recent work identified an RNA binding protein whose presence in brain tumors correlated with translational repression of Glut1 expression. RNase T1 mapping demonstrated that this protein bound an AU-rich response element (AURE) in the Glut1 3'UTR. Facilitated by its differential expression in brain tumor cytosols, we identified this Glut1 RNA binding protein as hnRNP A2. Studies further demonstrated that hnRNP A2 was the major Glut1 RNA binding activity in other cell lines. Recombinant hnRNP A2 exhibited equivalent Glut1 RNA binding specificity, quite distinct from the related AURE binding protein hnRNP A1. These data indicate that hnRNP A2 is the Glut1 AURE binding protein whose cytoplasmic expression in gliomas is associated with translational repression and mRNA instability. Using this approach, we also identified the other major Glut1 3'UTR RNA binding activity as hnRNP L. Stimuli (hypoxia and hypoglycemia) which increase Glut1 mRNA stability selectively decreased polysomal levels of hnRNP A2 and L. Immunoprecipitation demonstrated that hnRNP A2 and L exist as a complex in vivo. As a result of these and other studies, we conclude that hnRNP A2 and L associate in vivo and independently bind the 3'UTR of Glut1 mRNA.

Amplification of gene expression using both 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions of GLUT1 glucose transporter mRNA.

Cis-regulatory elements located at either the 5'- or 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of the GLUT1 glucose transporter mRNA increase the expression of luciferase reporter genes. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible cooperative effects of 5'- and 3'-UTRs of the GLUT1 mRNA on the expression of a luciferase reporter gene in cultured brain endothelial cells. Luciferase reporter genes containing control elements in nucleotides (nt) 1-171 of GLUT1 5'-UTR, or nt 2100-2300 of GLUT1 3'-UTR produced a 10- and 6-fold increase in the expression of the luciferase reporter gene compared to the control vector containing no GLUT1 regulatory sequences, respectively. The insertion of both GLUT1 mRNA cis-regulatory elements increased 59-fold the activity of luciferase compared to controls. Data presented here demonstrate that cis-regulatory elements located at both the 5'- and 3'-UTR of GLUT1 mRNA increase expression of a reporter gene in an independent manner.

Brain-derived peptides increase blood-brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter gene expression via mRNA stabilization.

The present investigation studied the effect of the brain-derived peptide preparation Cerebrolysin (CI, EBEWE, Austria) on the turnover rate and gene expression of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) GLUT1 glucose transporter mRNA. Studies were performed in brain endothelial cultured cells transfected with the human (h) GLUT1 transcript. In control cells, the full length 2.8 Kb hGLUT1 mRNA was rapidly degraded following transfection, and the abundance of this transcript at 4 and 6 h was comparable to background mRNA levels seen in cells transfected without hGLUT1 mRNA. On the contrary, the decay of the hGLUT1 mRNA was stabilized in CI-treated cells resulting in a marked reduction in the fractional turnover rate (72.4 and 4.0%/h, control and CI, respectively). In parallel experiments, CI induced a significant increase in the levels of immunoreactive GLUT1 protein measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In conclusion, data presented here demonstrate that factors in CI increase BBB-GLUT1 transcript stability, and that this is associated with an induction of BBB-GLUT1 gene expression in brain endothelial cultured cells.

Drug delivery of antisense molecules to the brain for treatment of Alzheimer's disease and cerebral AIDS.

Antisense oligonucleotides (ODNs) and peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) are potential therapeutics for eradication of malignancies, viral infections, and other pathologies. However, ODNs and PNAs in general are unable to cross cellular membranes and blood-tissue barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is only permeable to lipophilic molecules of molecular weight <600 Da. Cellular delivery systems based on conjugates of streptavidin (SA) and the OX26 monoclonal antibody directed to the transferrin receptor may be employed as a universal carrier for the transport of mono-biotinylated peptides, ODNs, or PNAs. 3'-Biotinylation of phosphodiester (PO)-ODN produces complete protection of ODN against serum and cellular 3'-exonucleases, facilitating the conjugation to avidin-based delivery systems and maintaining the activation of RNase H. These delivery systems markedly increased the cellular uptake and antisense efficacy of 3'-biotinylated ODNs in models of Alzheimer's disease and HIV-AIDS. In vivo brain delivery studies demonstrated that 3'-protected PO-ODNs and PO-phosphorothioate(PS)-ODN hybrids containing a single PO linkage are subjected to endonuclease degradation in vivo. On the contrary PS-ODNs, which were also protected at 3'-terminus by biotinylation, are metabolically stable in vivo and resistant to exo/endonuclease degradation. However, because of the strong binding of these oligomers to plasma protein, PS-ODNs are poorly transported into the brain through the BBB by the OX26-SA delivery vector following intravenous administration. PNAs are also resistant to exo/endonuclease and protease degradation, and these molecules biotinylated at the amino terminal group were transported into the brain by the OX26-SA delivery system with brain uptake levels comparable to that of morphine. Using the rev gene of HIV as a model target, RNase protection assays and cell-free translation arrest showed that the PNA-OX26-SA conjugate maintained active recognition and inactivation of target mRNA, respectively. The overall experimental evidence suggests that PNA-OX26-SA conjugates represent optimal antisense molecules for drug delivery to the brain.