R-loop-derived cytoplasmic RNA-DNA hybrids activate an immune response.

R-loops are RNA-DNA-hybrid-containing nucleic acids with important cellular roles. Deregulation of R-loop dynamics can lead to DNA damage and genome instability1, which has been linked to the action of endonucleases such as XPG2-4. However, the mechanisms and cellular consequences of such processing have remained unclear. Here we identify a new population of RNA-DNA hybrids in the cytoplasm that are R-loop-processing products. When nuclear R-loops were perturbed by depleting the RNA-DNA helicase senataxin (SETX) or the breast cancer gene BRCA1 (refs. 5-7), we observed XPG- and XPF-dependent cytoplasmic hybrid formation. We identify their source as a subset of stable, overlapping nuclear hybrids with a specific nucleotide signature. Cytoplasmic hybrids bind to the pattern recognition receptors cGAS and TLR3 (ref. 8), activating IRF3 and inducing apoptosis. Excised hybrids and an R-loop-induced innate immune response were also observed in SETX-mutated cells from patients with ataxia oculomotor apraxia type 2 (ref. 9) and in BRCA1-mutated cancer cells10. These findings establish RNA-DNA hybrids as immunogenic species that aberrantly accumulate in the cytoplasm after R-loop processing, linking R-loop accumulation to cell death through the innate immune response. Aberrant R-loop processing and subsequent innate immune activation may contribute to many diseases, such as neurodegeneration and cancer.

qDRIP: a method to quantitatively assess RNA-DNA hybrid formation genome-wide.

R-loops are dynamic, co-transcriptional nucleic acid structures that facilitate physiological processes but can also cause DNA damage in certain contexts. Perturbations of transcription or R-loop resolution are expected to change their genomic distribution. Next-generation sequencing approaches to map RNA-DNA hybrids, a component of R-loops, have so far not allowed quantitative comparisons between such conditions. Here, we describe quantitative differential DNA-RNA immunoprecipitation (qDRIP), a method combining synthetic RNA-DNA-hybrid internal standards with high-resolution, strand-specific sequencing. We show that qDRIP avoids biases inherent to read-count normalization by accurately profiling signal in regions unaffected by transcription inhibition in human cells, and by facilitating accurate differential peak calling between conditions. We also use these quantitative comparisons to make the first estimates of the absolute count of RNA-DNA hybrids per cell and their half-lives genome-wide. Finally, we identify a subset of RNA-DNA hybrids with high GC skew which are partially resistant to RNase H. Overall, qDRIP allows for accurate normalization in conditions where R-loops are perturbed and for quantitative measurements that provide previously unattainable biological insights.

An intrinsic S/G2 checkpoint enforced by ATR.

The cell cycle is strictly ordered to ensure faithful genome duplication and chromosome segregation. Control mechanisms establish this order by dictating when a cell transitions from one phase to the next. Much is known about the control of the G1/S, G2/M, and metaphase/anaphase transitions, but thus far, no control mechanism has been identified for the S/G2 transition. Here we show that cells transactivate the mitotic gene network as they exit the S phase through a CDK1 (cyclin-dependent kinase 1)-directed FOXM1 phosphorylation switch. During normal DNA replication, the checkpoint kinase ATR (ataxia-telangiectasia and Rad3-related) is activated by ETAA1 to block this switch until the S phase ends. ATR inhibition prematurely activates FOXM1, deregulating the S/G2 transition and leading to early mitosis, underreplicated DNA, and DNA damage. Thus, ATR couples DNA replication with mitosis and preserves genome integrity by enforcing an S/G2 checkpoint.

Transcription-Replication Conflict Orientation Modulates R-Loop Levels and Activates Distinct DNA Damage Responses.

Conflicts between transcription and replication are a potent source of DNA damage. Co-transcriptional R-loops could aggravate such conflicts by creating an additional barrier to replication fork progression. Here, we use a defined episomal system to investigate how conflict orientation and R-loop formation influence genome stability in human cells. R-loops, but not normal transcription complexes, induce DNA breaks and orientation-specific DNA damage responses during conflicts with replication forks. Unexpectedly, the replisome acts as an orientation-dependent regulator of R-loop levels, reducing R-loops in the co-directional (CD) orientation but promoting their formation in the head-on (HO) orientation. Replication stress and deregulated origin firing increase the number of HO collisions leading to genome-destabilizing R-loops. Our findings connect DNA replication to R-loop homeostasis and suggest a mechanistic basis for genome instability resulting from deregulated DNA replication, observed in cancer and other disease states.

Multivalent display of pendant pro-apoptotic peptides increases cytotoxic activity.

Several cationic antimicrobial peptides have been investigated as potential anti-cancer drugs due to their demonstrated selective toxicity towards cancer cells relative to normal cells. For example, intracellular delivery of KLA, a pro-apoptotic peptide, results in toxicity against a variety of cancer cell lines; however, the relatively low activity and small size lead to rapid renal excretion when applied in vivo, limiting its therapeutic potential. In this work, apoptotic peptide-polymer hybrid materials were developed to increase apoptotic peptide activity via multivalent display. Multivalent peptide materials were prepared with comb-like structure by RAFT copolymerization of peptide macromonomers with N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA). Polymers displayed a GKRK peptide sequence for targeting p32, a protein often overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells, either fused with or as a comonomer to a KLA macromonomer. In three tested cancer cell lines, apoptotic polymers were significantly more cytotoxic than free peptides as evidenced by an order of magnitude decrease in IC50 values for the polymers compared to free peptide. The uptake efficiency and intracellular trafficking of one polymer construct was determined by radiolabeling and subcellular fractionation. Despite their more potent cytotoxic profile, polymeric KLA constructs have poor cellular uptake efficiency (<1%). A significant fraction (20%) of internalized constructs localize with intact mitochondrial fractions. In an effort to increase cellular uptake, polymer amines were converted to guanidines by reaction with O-methylisourea. Guanidinylated polymers disrupted function of isolated mitochondria more than their lysine-based analogs, but overall toxicity was decreased, likely due to inefficient mitochondrial trafficking. Thus, while multivalent KLA polymers are more potent than KLA peptides, these materials can be substantially improved by designing next generation materials with improved cellular internalization and mitochondrial targeting efficiency.

Optimization of Tet1 ligand density in HPMA-co-oligolysine copolymers for targeted neuronal gene delivery.

Targeted gene delivery vectors can enhance cellular specificity and transfection efficiency. We demonstrated previously that conjugation of Tet1, a peptide that binds to the GT1b ganglioside, to polyethylenimine results in preferential transfection of neural progenitor cells in vivo. In this work, we investigate the effect of Tet1 ligand density on gene delivery to neuron-like, differentiated PC-12 cells. A series of statistical, cationic peptide-based polymers containing various amounts (1-5 mol%) of Tet1 were synthesized via one-pot reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization by copolymerization of Tet1 and oligo-l-lysine macromonomers with N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA). When complexed with plasmid DNA, the resulting panel of Tet1-functionalized polymers formed particles with similar particle size as particles formed with untargeted HPMA-oligolysine copolymers. The highest cellular uptake in neuron-like differentiated PC-12 cells was observed using polymers with intermediate Tet1 peptide incorporation. Compared to untargeted polymers, polymers with optimal incorporation of Tet1 increased gene delivery to neuron-like PC-12 cells by over an order of magnitude but had no effect compared to control polymers in transfecting NIH/3T3 control cells.