Adaptation via symbiosis: recent spread of a Drosophila defensive symbiont.

Recent studies have shown that some plants and animals harbor microbial symbionts that protect them against natural enemies. Here we demonstrate that a maternally transmitted bacterium, Spiroplasma, protects Drosophila neotestacea against the sterilizing effects of a parasitic nematode, both in the laboratory and the field. This nematode parasitizes D. neotestacea at high frequencies in natural populations, and, until recently, almost all infections resulted in complete sterility. Several lines of evidence suggest that Spiroplasma is spreading in North American populations of D. neotestacea and that a major adaptive change to a symbiont-based mode of defense is under way. These findings demonstrate the profound and potentially rapid effects of defensive symbionts, which are increasingly recognized as major players in the ecology of species interactions.

Association between Wolbachia and Spiroplasma within Drosophila neotestacea: an emerging symbiotic mutualism?

Interspecific mutualism can evolve when specific lineages of different species tend to be associated with each other from one generation to the next. Different maternally transmitted endosymbionts occurring within the same cytoplasmic lineage fulfil this requirement. Drosophila neotestacea is infected with maternally transmitted Wolbachia and Spiroplasma, which are cotransmitted at high frequency in natural populations. Molecular phylogenetic evidence indicates that both endosymbionts have been present in D. neotestacea for considerable evolutionary periods. Thus, conditions are suitable for the evolution of mutualism between them. In support of this possibility, there is a significant positive association between Wolbachia and Spiroplasma infection in many samples of D. neotestacea from natural populations. Theoretically, such a positive association can result from either mutualism between these endosymbionts or recent spread. Collections from present-day populations suggest that recent spread and mutualism have both operated to generate the positive association between Wolbachia and Spiroplasma. If selection acts on the combination of these two endosymbionts, they may be in the early stages of evolution of a more complex, cooperative association.

Wolbachia as populations within individual insects: causes and consequences of density variation in natural populations.

The population-level dynamics of maternally transmitted endosymbionts, including reproductive parasites, depends primarily on the fitness effects and transmission fidelity of these infections. Although experimental laboratory studies have shown that within-host endosymbiont density can affect both of these factors, the existence of such effects in natural populations has not yet been documented. Using quantitative PCR, we survey the density of male-killing Wolbachia in natural populations of Drosophila innubila females from the Chiricahua Mountains of Arizona. We find that there is substantial (20 000-fold) variation in Wolbachia density among wild flies and that within-host Wolbachia density is positively correlated with both the efficacy of male killing and maternal transmission fidelity. Mean Wolbachia density increases three- to five-fold from early to late in the season. This pattern suggests that Wolbachia density declines with fly age, a conclusion corroborated by a laboratory study of Wolbachia density as a function of age. Finally, we suggest three alternative hypotheses to account for the approximately lognormal distribution of Wolbachia density among wild flies.

Isolation and characterization of 30 polymorphic microsatellite loci from the mycophagous fly Drosophila innubila.

Drosophila innubila is a mushroom-feeding member of the quinaria group, found in the woodlands and forests of the 'sky islands' in Arizona and New Mexico and extending south into central Mexico. Here, we describe and characterize 30 polymorphic microsatellite loci from D. innubila collected in the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona. The number of alleles ranged from three to 21, and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.0513 to 0.9737. Six loci were putatively X-linked, six departed from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, seven had evidence of null alleles, and six showed evidence of linkage disequilibrium. These markers will be useful for examining population structure of D. innubila and its association with male-killing Wolbachia.