The determination of thiocyanate in the blood plasma and holding water of Amphiprion clarkii after exposure to cyanide.

The illegal practice of cyanide fishing continues throughout the Indo-Pacific. To combat this destructive fishing method, a reliable test to detect whether a fish has been captured using cyanide (CN) is needed. We report on the toxicokinetics of acute, pulsed CN exposure and chronic thiocyanate (SCN) exposure, the major metabolite of CN, in the clownfish species, Amphiprion clarkii. Fish were pulse exposed to 50 ppm CN for 20 or 45 s or chronically exposed to 100 ppm SCN for 12 days and blood plasma levels of SCN were measured. SCN blood plasma levels reached a maximum concentration (301-468 ppb) 0.13-0.17 days after exposure to CN and had a 0.1 to 1.2 day half-life. The half-life of blood plasma SCN after chronic exposure to SCN was found to be 0.13 days. Interestingly, we observed that when a fish, with no previous CN or SCN exposure, was placed in holding water spiked to 20 ppb SCN, there was a steady decrease in the SCN concentration in the holding water until it could no longer be detected at 24 hrs. Under chronic exposure conditions (100 ppm, 12 days), trace levels of SCN (∼40 ppb) were detected in the holding water during depuration but decreased to below detection within the first 24 hrs. Our holding water experiments demonstrate that low levels of SCN in the holding water of A. clarkii will not persist, but rather will quickly and steadily decrease to below detection limits refuting several publications. After CN exposure, A. clarkii exhibits a classic two compartment model where SCN is eliminated from the blood plasma and is likely distributed throughout the body. Similar studies of other species must be examined to continue to develop our understanding of CN metabolism in marine fish before a reliable cyanide detection test can be developed.

On the half-life of thiocyanate in the plasma of the marine fish Amphiprion ocellaris: implications for cyanide detection.

The illegal practice of using cyanide (CN) as a stunning agent to collect fish for both the marine aquarium and live fish food trades has been used throughout the Indo-Pacific for over 50 years. CN fishing is destructive to all life forms within the coral reef ecosystems where it is used and is certainly one of many anthropogenic activities that have led to 95% of the reefs in the Indo-Pacific being labeled at risk for degradation and loss. A field-deployable test for detecting fish caught using CN would assist in combating the use of this destructive practice, however, no reliable and robust test exists. Further, there is little toxicokinetic data available on marine fish to support the development of such a test, yet such data is critical to establishing the concentration range and time scale over which such a test would be viable. This study presents the first direct measurement of the half-life of the metabolite thiocyanate (SCN) after pulsed exposure to CN in a marine fish. SCN was measured in the plasma of Amphiprion ocellaris after exposure to 50 ppm CN for three exposure times (20, 45, and 60 s) using HPLC-UV and a C30 column pre-treated with polyethylene glycol. Plasma SCN levels observed are dose-dependent, reflecting a longer time for conversion of CN to SCN as the dose of CN increases. SCN plasma levels reached a maximum concentration (1.2-2.3 ppm) 12-20 h after exposure to CN. The half-life for the elimination of SCN was 1.01 ± 0.26 days for 45 s exposure and 0.44 ± 0.15 days for 20 s exposure. Fish were also directly exposed to SCN (100 ppm for 11 days) and the observed half-life for SCN elimination was 0.35 ± 0.07 days. Plasma SCN levels did not return to control levels, even after 41 days when exposed to CN but did return to control levels after 48 days when exposed to SCN. The similar half-lives observed for CN and SCN exposure suggests that SCN exposure can be used as a proxy for measuring the rate of SCN elimination following CN exposure. In order for plasma SCN to be used as a marker for CN exposure, these results must be extended to other species and endogenous levels of SCN in wild caught fish must be established.

Oxygen-deficient metabolism and corneal edema.

Wear of low-oxygen-transmissible soft contact lenses swells the cornea significantly, even during open eye. Although oxygen-deficient corneal edema is well-documented, a self-consistent quantitative prediction based on the underlying metabolic reactions is not available. We present a biochemical description of the human cornea that quantifies hypoxic swelling through the coupled transport of water, salt, and respiratory metabolites. Aerobic and anaerobic consumption of glucose, as well as acidosis and pH buffering, are incorporated in a seven-layer corneal model (anterior chamber, endothelium, stroma, epithelium, postlens tear film, contact lens, and prelens tear film). Corneal swelling is predicted from coupled transport of water, dissolved salts, and especially metabolites, along with membrane-transport resistances at the endothelium and epithelium. At the endothelium, the Na+/K+ - ATPase electrogenic channel actively transports bicarbonate ion from the stroma into the anterior chamber. As captured by the Kedem-Katchalsky membrane-transport formalism, the active bicarbonate-ion flux provides the driving force for corneal fluid pump-out needed to match the leak-in tendency of the stroma. Increased lactate-ion production during hypoxia osmotically lowers the pump-out rate requiring the stroma to swell to higher water content. Concentration profiles are predicted for glucose, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydronium, lactate, bicarbonate, sodium, and chloride ions, along with electrostatic potential and pressure profiles. Although the active bicarbonate-ion pump at the endothelium drives bicarbonate into the aqueous humor, we find a net flux of bicarbonate ion into the cornea that safeguards against acidosis. For the first time, we predict corneal swelling upon soft-contact-lens wear from fundamental biophysico-chemical principles. We also successfully predict that hypertonic tear alleviates contact-lens-induced edema.

Periplasmic domains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PilN and PilO form a stable heterodimeric complex.

Type IV pili (T4P) are bacterial virulence factors responsible for attachment to surfaces and for twitching motility, a motion that involves a succession of pilus extension and retraction cycles. In the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the PilM/N/O/P proteins are essential for T4P biogenesis, and genetic and biochemical analyses strongly suggest that they form an inner-membrane complex. Here, we show through co-expression and biochemical analysis that the periplasmic domains of PilN and PilO interact to form a heterodimer. The structure of residues 69-201 of the periplasmic domain of PilO was determined to 2.2 A resolution and reveals the presence of a homodimer in the asymmetric unit. Each monomer consists of two N-terminal coiled coils and a C-terminal ferredoxin-like domain. This structure was used to generate homology models of PilN and the PilN/O heterodimer. Our structural analysis suggests that in vivo PilN/O heterodimerization would require changes in the orientation of the first N-terminal coiled coil, which leads to two alternative models for the role of the transmembrane domains in the PilN/O interaction. Analysis of PilN/O orthologues in the type II secretion system EpsL/M revealed significant similarities in their secondary structures and the tertiary structures of PilO and EpsM, although the way these proteins interact to form inner-membrane complexes appears to be different in T4P and type II secretion. Our analysis suggests that PilN interacts directly, via its N-terminal tail, with the cytoplasmic protein PilM. This work shows a direct interaction between the periplasmic domains of PilN and PilO, with PilO playing a key role in the proper folding of PilN. Our results suggest that PilN/O heterodimers form the foundation of the inner-membrane PilM/N/O/P complex, which is critical for the assembly of a functional T4P complex.

Effects of fragmentation on genetic diversity in island populations of the Aegean wall lizard Podarcis erhardii (Lacertidae, Reptilia).

Landbridge islands offer unique opportunities for understanding the effects of fragmentation history on genetic variation in island taxa. The formation of islands by rising sea levels can be likened to a population bottleneck whose magnitude and duration is determined by island area and time since isolation, respectively. The Holocene landbridge islands of the Aegean Sea (Greece) were formed since the last glacial maximum and constitute an ideal system for disentangling the effects of island area, age and geographic isolation on genetic variability. Of the many reptile species inhabiting this island system, the Aegean wall lizard Podarcis erhardii is an excellent indicator of fragmentation history due to its widespread distribution and poor over-water dispersal abilities. In this study, we utilize a detailed record of Holocene fragmentation to investigate the effects of island history on wall lizard mitochondrial and nuclear microsatellite diversity. Findings show that the spatial distribution of mitochondrial haplotypes reflects historical patterns of fragmentation rather than geographic proximity per se. In keeping with neutral bottleneck theory, larger and younger islands retain more nuclear genetic variation than smaller, older islands. Conversely, there is no evidence of an effect of isolation by distance or effect of distance to the nearest larger landmass on genetic variability, indicating little gene flow between islands. Lastly, population-specific measures of genetic differentiation are inversely correlated with island area, suggesting that smaller islands exhibit greater divergence due to their greater susceptibility to drift. Taken together, these results suggest that both island area and time since isolation are important predictors of genetic variation and that these patterns likely arose through the progressive fragmentation of ancestral diversity and the ensuing cumulative effects of drift.

Structural genomics of enzymes involved in sterol/isoprenoid biosynthesis.

X-ray structures of two enzymes in the sterol/isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway have been determined in a structural genomics pilot study. Mevalonate-5-diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) is a single-domain alpha/beta protein that catalyzes the last of three sequential ATP-dependent reactions which convert mevalonate to isopentenyl diphosphate. Isopentenyl disphosphate isomerase (IDI) is an alpha/beta metalloenzyme that catalyzes interconversion of isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate, which condense in the next step toward synthesis of sterols and a host of natural products. Homology modeling of related proteins and comparisons of the MDD and IDI structures with two other experimentally determined structures have shown that MDD is a member of the GHMP superfamily of small-molecule kinases and IDI is similar to the nudix hydrolases, which act on nucleotide diphosphatecontaining substrates. Structural models were produced for 379 proteins, encompassing a substantial fraction of both protein superfamilies. All three enzymes responsible for synthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate from mevalonate (mevalonate kinase, phosphomevalonate kinase, and MDD) share the same fold, catalyze phosphorylation of chemically similar substrates (MDD decarboxylation involves phosphorylation of mevalonate diphosphate), and seem to have evolved from a common ancestor. These structures and the structural models derived from them provide a framework for interpreting biochemical function and evolutionary relationships.

Studies on the expression of mRNA for anion transport related proteins in corneal endothelial cells.

PURPOSE: Chloride and bicarbonate are necessary for maintenance of fluid transport by the corneal endothelium, however there is little information on the identity of anion transport proteins that could serve as anion efflux mechanisms in endothelial cells. Therefore, we ask whether mRNA for the anion transport related proteins, CFTR, CLC-2, ClC-3, ClC-5 and AE2, are expressed in human, bovine or rabbit corneal endothelium. METHODS: RT-PCR was performed for CFTR, CLC-2, ClC-3, ClC-5 and AE2 using total RNA from fresh human, bovine and rabbit corneal endothelium as well as cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells (CBCEC). Specificity of PCR products was confirmed by sequencing. RESULTS: RT-PCR analysis gave positive bands at the predicted size for CLC-3 and CLC-5 from fresh human, rabbit and bovine as well as CBCEC. However, for CLC-2, no band was apparent around the predicted size from fresh and cultured corneal endothelium. A band at the predicted size was obtained for CFTR from fresh human, rabbit and bovine endothelium, as well as from CBCEC. RT-PCR analysis for AE2 produced specific bands from fresh human, rabbit and bovine corneal endothelium, but no positive band was obtained from CBCEC. Sequencing analysis further confirmed the identities of CLC-3, CLC-5, CFTR and AE2 in corneal endothelium. CONCLUSIONS: CFTR, CLC-3 and ClC-5 are expressed in fresh and cultured corneal endothelial cells. However, consistent with previous immunoblots studies, AE2 is only expressed in fresh corneal endothelium. These results have implications for modeling possible apical anion efflux mechanisms in corneal endothelium.

Effect of AQP1 expression level on Co(2) permeability in bovine corneal endothelium.

PURPOSE: Corneal endothelial fluid transport is dependent on HCO(3)(-) and CO(2) fluxes. CO(2) permeability (P:CO(2)) measurements in an oocyte expression system and in reconstituted proteoliposomes have suggested that the water channel AQP1 can transport CO(2). An AQP1 knockout mouse model, however, showed no evidence for CO(2) transport through AQP1 in erythrocytes or lung. Because HCO(3)(-) and CO(2) fluxes are essential to endothelial function, the current study was conducted to determine whether AQP1 expression levels in confluent cultures of bovine corneal endothelial cells (BCECs) affects membrane PCO(2). METHODS: BCEC endogenous AQP1 expression was reduced by antisense oligonucleotide (AO) transfection or adenoviral antisense-AQP1 (AV) infection. AQP1 was overexpressed by adenoviral sense-AQP1 (SV) infection, which directs expression of recombinant AQP1. RESULTS: Expression of AQP1 and osmotic water permeability (control P(f) = 0.046 +/- 0.005 cm/sec) were reduced 45% and 36.5%, respectively, by AO transfection and reduced 67% and 49%, respectively, by AV infection. SV infection induced a more than threefold overexpression of AQP1 but showed only a 37% increase in P(f). Adenoviral empty virus (EV) infection did not change AQP1 expression or P(f). PCO(2) was determined by measuring the rate of intracellular pH decrease after exposure to CO(2)/HCO(3)(-)-rich solutions, as measured by the pH-sensitive fluorescent dye 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF). Apparent PCO(2) of BCEC (0.0036 +/- 0.00023 cm/sec) was not different among control, oligonucleotide-transfected, and adenoviral-infected cells. P(f) could also be reduced more than 50% by 3 to 5 minutes' exposure of control cells to 0.5 mM p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonic acid (pCMBS), but this had no effect on rates of intracellular pH decrease. CONCLUSIONS: AQP1 does not contribute to PCO(2) in corneal endothelial cells.

Effects of contact lens-induced hypoxia on the physiology of the corneal endothelium.

Contact lens wear can cause a number of physiological changes in the cornea. Two areas of interest in my laboratory have been contact lens effects on the endothelium and, more recently, the role of metabolic activity in predicting corneal swelling. The first part of this review focuses on the function of the corneal endothelium, the nature of its fluid pump, and the effects of contact lens-induced hypoxia and corneal pH changes on corneal endothelial function. In the second part, the etiology of hypoxia-induced corneal swelling is reviewed in relation to new studies on the causes of intersubject corneal swelling variability. The results indicate that corneal swelling is influenced by both corneal metabolic activity and endothelial function.

Expression and localization of Na(+)-HCO(3)(-) cotransporter in bovine corneal endothelium.

Functional studies support the presence of the Na(+)-HCO(3)(-) cotransporter (NBC) in corneal endothelium and possibly corneal epithelium; however, molecular identification and membrane localization have not been reported. To test whether NBC is expressed in bovine cornea, Western blotting was performed, which showed a single band at approximately 130 kDa for freshly isolated and cultured endothelial cells, but no band for epithelium. Two isoforms of NBC have recently been cloned in kidney (kNBC) and pancreas (pNBC). RT-PCR was run using cultured and fresh bovine corneal endothelial and fresh corneal epithelial total RNA and specific primers for kNBC and pNBC. RT-PCR analysis for pNBC was positive in endothelium and weak in epithelium. The RT-PCR product was subcloned and confirmed as pNBC by sequencing. No specific bands for kNBC were obtained from corneal cells. Indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy indicated that NBC locates predominantly to the basolateral membrane in corneal endothelial cells. Furthermore, Na(+)-dependent HCO(3)(-) fluxes and HCO(3)(-)-dependent cotransport with Na(+) were elicited only from the basolateral side of corneal endothelial cells. Therefore, we conclude that pNBC is present in the basolateral membrane of both fresh and cultured bovine corneal endothelium and weakly expressed in the corneal epithelium.

Basolateral Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransport in cultured and fresh bovine corneal endothelium.

PURPOSE: To examine whether Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransport has the potential to contribute to corneal endothelial ion and fluid transport in cultured and fresh bovine corneal endothelial cells. METHODS: Cl- and Na+ sensitive fluorescent dyes were used to measure furosemide-dependent ion fluxes in cultured and fresh endothelial cells. Immunoblot analysis and immunofluorescence were used to determine expression and location of the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-)cotransporter (NKCC1). RESULTS: Application of furosemide (50-100 microM) reduced Cl- and Na+ influx in approximately 50% of trials using cultured cells and only 10% of trials with fresh cells; however, in all cases pretreatment with furosemide slowed Cl- efflux when cells were bathed in Cl(-)-free Ringer's. Double-sided perfusion of cultured cells indicated that furosemide-sensitive Cl- fluxes were located on the basolateral side. Immunoblot analysis revealed 174-kDa bands in both fresh and cultured cells, but the bands were denser in fresh endothelial cells. Immunofluorescence showed distinct lateral membrane staining in addition to significant amounts of perinuclear staining. CONCLUSIONS: The Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter is present in both fresh and cultured bovine corneal endothelium, and the expression is apparently higher in the fresh cells. The cotransporter is present on the lateral membrane consistent with a role in loading endothelial cells with Cl-, thereby possibly contributing to a transendothelial Cl- flux. However, in the resting cell, net flux through the transporter is often not apparent.

Structural studies of the [tris(imidazolyl)phosphine]metal nitrate complexes [[PimPrl,But]M(NO3)]+ (M = Co, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg): comparison of nitrate-binding modes in synthetic analogues of carbonic anhydrase.

X-ray diffraction studies on a series of cationic divalent metal nitrate complexes supported by the tris(1-isopropyl-4-tert-butylimidazolyl)phosphine ligand, [[PimPri,But]M(NO3)]+ (M = Co, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg), demonstrate that the nitrate ligand coordination mode is strongly dependent upon the metal. With the exception of that for the HgII derivative, the nitrate ligand coordination modes correlate with the activities of metal-substituted carbonic anhydrases, such that the only MII-carbonic anhydrases which exhibit significant activity, i.e., the Zn and Co species, are those for which the [[PimPri,But]M(NO3)]+ complexes possess strongly asymmetric nitrate ligands. This trend supports the notion that access to a unidentate, rather than a bidentate, bicarbonate intermediate may be a critical requirement for significant carbonic anhydrase activity. Interestingly, the nitrate coordination modes in the series of group 12 complexes, [[PimPri,But]M(NO3)]+ (M = Zn, Cd, Hg), do not exhibit a monotonic periodic trend: the bidenticity is greater for the cadmium complex than for either the zinc or mercury complexes. Since HgII-carbonic anhydrase is inactive, the correlation between nitrate coordination mode and enzyme activity is anomalous for the mercury complex. Therefore, it is suggested that the inactivity of HgII-carbonic anhydrase may be consequence of the reduced tendency of the mercury center in HgII-carbonic anhydrase to bind water.

Re-evaluation of the oxygen diffusion model for predicting minimum contact lens Dk/t values needed to avoid corneal anoxia.

PURPOSE: (1) To update Fatt's mathematical model of the distribution of oxygen tension (pO2) across the cornea and contact lens (CL) to include the recent finding that corneal oxygen consumption increases with the acidification that occurs with CL wear. (2) To estimate the minimum transmissibility (CL Dk/t) to avoid epithelial anoxia or to avoid stromal anoxia. METHODS: A five-layer static and one-dimensional mathematical model of oxygen diffusion through the cornea based on Fatt's models was used. The relationships between acidosis and increased QO2, and acidosis and CL Dk/t were used to estimate corneal QO2 for a given CL Dk/t. RESULTS: (1) Revised model predictions are in agreement with direct tear pO2 measurements beneath CLs in the rabbit. (2) For the human eye, the minimum CL Dk/t for oxygen delivery to the basal epithelial cells was determined to be 23 for the open eye and 89 for the closed eye. To prevent anoxia throughout the entire corneal thickness the Dk/t requirements are 35 for the open eye and 125 for the closed eye. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Model predictions of the oxygen distribution beneath contact lenses are significantly lower than previous models that did not include the effect of acidosis on corneal QO2. (2) Minimum Dk/t values that allow oxygen delivery to the basal epithelium are in agreement with the Dk/t needed to avoid corneal edema.

Structural genomics: beyond the human genome project.

With access to whole genome sequences for various organisms and imminent completion of the Human Genome Project, the entire process of discovery in molecular and cellular biology is poised to change. Massively parallel measurement strategies promise to revolutionize how we study and ultimately understand the complex biochemical circuitry responsible for controlling normal development, physiologic homeostasis and disease processes. This information explosion is also providing the foundation for an important new initiative in structural biology. We are about to embark on a program of high-throughput X-ray crystallography aimed at developing a comprehensive mechanistic understanding of normal and abnormal human and microbial physiology at the molecular level. We present the rationale for creation of a structural genomics initiative, recount the efforts of ongoing structural genomics pilot studies, and detail the lofty goals, technical challenges and pitfalls facing structural biologists.

Apical and basolateral CO2-HCO3- permeability in cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells.

Corneal endothelial function is dependent on HCO3- transport. However, the relative HCO3- permeabilities of the apical and basolateral membranes are unknown. Using changes in intracellular pH secondary to removing CO2-HCO3- (at constant pH) or removing HCO3- alone (at constant CO2) from apical or basolateral compartments, we determined the relative apical and basolateral HCO3- permeabilities and their dependencies on Na+ and Cl-. Removal of CO2-HCO3- from the apical side caused a steady-state alkalinization (+0.08 pH units), and removal from the basolateral side caused an acidification (-0.05 pH units). Removal of HCO3- at constant CO(2) indicated that the basolateral HCO3- fluxes were about three to four times the apical fluxes. Reducing perfusate Na+ concentration to 10 mM had no effect on apical flux but slowed basolateral HCO3- flux by one-half. In the absence of Cl-, there was an apparent increase in apical HCO3- flux under constant-pH conditions; however, no net change could be measured under constant-CO2 conditions. Basolateral flux was slowed approximately 30% in the absence of Cl-, but the net flux was unchanged. The steady-state alkalinization after removal of CO2-HCO3- apically suggests that CO2 diffusion may contribute to apical HCO3- flux through the action of a membrane-associated carbonic anhydrase. Indeed, apical CO2 fluxes were inhibited by the extracellular carbonic anhydrase inhibitor benzolamide and partially restored by exogenous carbonic anhydrase. The presence of membrane-bound carbonic anhydrase (CAIV) was confirmed by immunoblotting. We conclude that the Na+-dependent basolateral HCO3- permeability is consistent with Na+-nHCO3- cotransport. Changes in HCO3- flux in the absence of Cl- are most likely due to Na+-nHCO3- cotransport-induced membrane potential changes that cannot be dissipated. Apical HCO3- permeability is relatively low, but may be augmented by CO2 diffusion in conjunction with a CAIV.

Recognition of polyadenylate RNA by the poly(A)-binding protein.

The cocrystal structure of human poly(A)-binding protein (PABP) has been determined at 2.6 A resolution. PABP recognizes the 3' mRNA poly(A) tail and plays critical roles in eukaryotic translation initiation and mRNA stabilization/degradation. The minimal PABP used in this study consists of the N-terminal two RRM-type RNA-binding domains connected by a short linker (RRM1/2). These two RRMs form a continuous RNA-binding trough, lined by an antiparallel beta sheet backed by four alpha helices. The polyadenylate RNA adopts an extended conformation running the length of the molecular trough. Adenine recognition is primarily mediated by contacts with conserved residues found in the RNP motifs of the two RRMs. The convex dorsum of RRM1/2 displays a phylogenetically conserved hydrophobic/acidic portion, which may interact with translation initiation factors and regulatory proteins.

Swelling activated chloride channels in cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells.

Swelling induced enhancement of anion permeability was investigated using the halide-sensitive fluorescent dye SPQ in cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells (BCEC). Rates of anion influx were quantified in terms of the rate of change of SPQ fluorescence during exposure to short duration pulses of Cl-, I-or NO3-while the cells were being perfused with I-, NO3-or Cl-Ringer, respectively. Since SPQ fluorescence is quenched to different extents by these anions, their influx or efflux causes significant changes in fluorescence. The ratio of the maximum rate of change of fluorescence during the pulse period under hyposmotic conditions to that under isosmotic conditions, referred to as the enhancement ratio (ER), was calculated as a measure of the increase in anion permeability. When cells were perfused with NO3-Ringer, exposure to I-pulses yielded an ER=9.0+/-2.6 for 110+/-5 mosmhyposmotic shock. This was higher than with Cl-/I-(6.4+/-0.7) or NO3-/Cl-(3.2+/-0.8) anion-pairs for the same level of shocks. In all cases, the enhancement occurred within approximately 100 seconds after swelling but decreased with continued progress of regulatory volume decrease (RVD). ER returned to approximately 1 within 4 minutes after returning to isosmotic conditions. The membrane potential (Em) depolarized immediately after hyposmotic shock. When cells were depolarized prior to the shocks by high [K+], changes in Emwere relatively small. ER, for the NO3-/I-anion-pair, was significantly reduced by DIDS (100% at 500 microm), NPPB ( approximately 80% at 100 microm) and tamoxifen (approximately 85% at 12 microm). Tamoxifen and NPPB also inhibited swelling induced depolarization. Increasing cationic conductance with Gramicidin D at approximately 2 minutes following hyposmotic shock induced NPPB-inhibitable secondary swelling or accelerated RVD under normal or low Na+conditions, respectively. These results demonstrate that BCEC express swelling activated Cl-channels, which facilitate RVD by enhancing anionic permeability and also by providing a favorable electrical gradient for K+efflux.

Reevaluation of Cl-/HCO3- exchange in cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells.

PURPOSE: To determine the apical versus basolateral polarity of the putative anion exchanger in cultured bovine corneal endothelial cells (BCECs) and to examine the influence of Cl--dependent membrane potential (Em) changes on HCO3- transport. METHODS: BCECs grown on permeable supports were used for independent perfusion of apical and basolateral surfaces. Intracellular pH (pHi) was measured using the fluorescent dye BCECF. Relative changes in Em were measured using the fluorescent dye bis-oxonol. Western blot analysis was used to detect immunoreactivity against the anion exchanger (AE1 or AE2). RESULTS: Cl- removal from apical and basolateral surfaces produced cellular alkalinization (apical side, 0.07 pH units; basolateral side, 0.06 pH units; both sides, 0.20 pH units). Application of 100 microM H2-4,4'-diisothiocyanatodihydrostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), an anion exchange inhibitor, on the apical side produced an alkalinization (0.02 pH units) followed by acidification (-0.05 pH units), whereas basolateral H2DIDS caused a substantial acidification (-0.16 pH units). In the absence of Na+, Cl- removal from the apical side caused a transient alkalinization (0.03 pH units) followed by a return to baseline; Cl- removal from the basolateral side caused a small (-0.03) acidification. In Na+-free Ringer, apical H2DIDS produced a transient alkalinization (0.02 pH units), whereas basolateral exposure had no effect. 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB), N-phenylanthranilic acid (DPC), and niflumic acid (50-200 microM), known Cl- channel blockers, produced cellular acidification in control Ringer. Niflumic acid hyperpolarized Em and inhibited depolarization after Cl- removal. Western blot analysis failed to detect AE2 expression in cultured BCECs. However, fresh BCECs produced a trace response. CONCLUSIONS: Physiological activity of an apical anion exchanger is weak in cultured BCECs. Cultured BCECs have significant Cl- conductance. Thus, cellular alkalinization after Cl- removal is caused primarily by depolarization of Em, which drives HCO3- influx through the basolateral electrogenic Na+:nHCO3- cotransporter. In contrast with cultured BCECs, AE2 may be present in fresh cells.