Enzymatic machinery of wood-inhabiting fungi that degrade temperate tree species.

Deadwood provides habitat for fungi and serves diverse ecological functions in forests. We already have profound knowledge of fungal assembly processes, physiological and enzymatic activities, and resulting physico-chemical changes during deadwood decay. However, in situ detection and identification methods, fungal origins, and a mechanistic understanding of the main lignocellulolytic enzymes are lacking. This study used metaproteomics to detect the main extracellular lignocellulolytic enzymes in 12 tree species in a temperate forest that have decomposed for 8 ½ years. Mainly white-rot (and few brown-rot) Basidiomycota were identified as the main wood decomposers, with Armillaria as the dominant genus; additionally, several soft-rot xylariaceous Ascomycota were identified. The key enzymes involved in lignocellulolysis included manganese peroxidase, peroxide-producing alcohol oxidases, laccase, diverse glycoside hydrolases (cellulase, glucosidase, xylanase), esterases, and lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases. The fungal community and enzyme composition differed among the 12 tree species. Ascomycota species were more prevalent in angiosperm logs than in gymnosperm logs. Regarding lignocellulolysis as a function, the extracellular enzyme toolbox acted simultaneously and was interrelated (e.g. peroxidases and peroxide-producing enzymes were strongly correlated), highly functionally redundant, and present in all logs. In summary, our in situ study provides comprehensive and detailed insight into the enzymatic machinery of wood-inhabiting fungi in temperate tree species. These findings will allow us to relate changes in environmental factors to lignocellulolysis as an ecosystem function in the future.

Active soil microbial composition and proliferation are directly affected by the presence of biocides from building materials.

Combinations of biocides are commonly added to building materials to prevent microbial growth and thereby cause degradation of the façades. These biocides reach the environment by leaching from façades posing an environmental risk. Although ecotoxicity to the aquatic habitat is well established, there is hardly any data on the ecotoxicological effects of biocides on the soil habitat. This study aimed to characterize the effect of the biocides terbutryn, isoproturon, octhilinone, and combinations thereof on the total and metabolically active soil microbial community composition and functions. Total soil microbial community was retrieved directly from the nucleic acid extracts, while the DNA of the active soil microbial community was separated after bromodeoxyuridine labeling. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene and fungal internal transcribed spacer region gene-based amplicon sequencing was carried out for both active and total, while gene copy numbers were quantified only for the total soil microbial community. Additionally, soil respiration and physico-chemical parameters were analyzed to investigate overall soil microbial activity. The bacterial and fungal gene copy numbers were significantly affected by single biocides and combined biocide soil treatment but not soil respiration and physico-chemical parameters. While the total soil microbiome experienced only minor effects from single and combined biocide treatment, the active soil microbiome was significantly impacted in its diversity, richness, composition, and functional patterns. The active bacterial richness was more sensitive than fungal richness. However, the adverse effects of the biocide combination treatments on soil bacterial richness were highly dependent on the identities of the biocide combination. Our results demonstrate that the presence of biocides frequently used in building materials affects the active soil microbiome. Thereby, the approach described herein can be used as an ecotoxicological measure for the effect on complex soil environments in future studies.

Biological nitrogen fixation, diversity and community structure of diazotrophs in two mosses in 25 temperate forests.

Many moss species are associated with nitrogen (N)-fixing bacteria (diazotrophs) that support the N supply of mosses. Our knowledge relates primarily to pristine ecosystems with low atmospheric N input, but knowledge of biological N fixation (BNF) and diazotrophic communities in mosses in temperate forests with high N deposition is limited. We measured BNF rates using the direct stable isotope method and studied the total and potentially active diazotrophic communities in two abundant mosses, Brachythecium rutabulum and Hypnum cupressiforme, both growing on lying deadwood trunks in 25 temperate forest sites. BNF rates in both mosses were similar to those observed in moss species of pristine ecosystems. H. cupressiforme fixed three times more N2 and exhibited lower diazotrophic richness than B. rutabulum. Frankia was the most prominent diazotroph followed by cyanobacteria Nostoc. Manganese, iron, and molybdenum contents in mosses were positively correlated with BNF and diazotrophic communities. Frankia maintained high BNF rates in H. cupressiforme and B. rutabulum even under high chronic N deposition in Central European forests. Moss N concentration and 15 N abundance indicate a rather minor contribution of BNF to the N nutrition of these mosses.

Wood decomposition is increased by insect diversity, selection effects, and interactions between insects and microbes.

Biodiversity drives ecosystem processes, but its influence on deadwood decomposition is poorly understood. To test the effects of insect diversity on wood decomposition, we conducted a mesocosm experiment manipulating the species richness and functional diversity of beetles. We applied a novel approach using computed tomography scanning to quantify decomposition by insects and recorded fungal and bacterial communities. Decomposition rates increased with both species richness and functional diversity of beetles, but the effects of functional diversity were linked to beetle biomass, and to the presence of one large-bodied species in particular. This suggests that mechanisms behind observed biodiversity effects are the selection effect, which is linked to the occurrence probability of large species, and the complementarity effect, which is driven by functional differentiation among species. Additionally, beetles had significant indirect effects on wood decomposition via bacterial diversity, fungal community composition, and fungal biomass. Our experiment shows that wood decomposition is driven by beetle diversity and its interactions with bacteria and fungi. This highlights that both insect and microbial biodiversity are critical to maintaining ecosystem functioning.

Nitrogen addition increases mass loss of gymnosperm but not of angiosperm deadwood without changing microbial communities.

Enhanced nitrogen (N) deposition due to combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural fertilization is a global phenomenon which has severely altered carbon (C) and N cycling in temperate forest ecosystems in the northern hemisphere. Although deadwood holds a substantial amount of C in forest ecosystems and thus plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, the effect of increased N deposition on microbial processes and communities, wood chemical traits and deadwood mass loss remains unclear. Here, we simulated high N deposition rates by adding reactive N in form of ammonium-nitrate (40 kg N ha-1 yr-1) to deadwood of 13 temperate tree species over nine years in a field experiment in Germany. Non-treated deadwood from the same logs served as control with background N deposition. Our results show that chronically elevated N levels alters deadwood mass loss alongside respiration, enzymatic activities and wood chemistry depending on tree clade and species. In gymnosperm deadwood, elevated N increased mass loss by +38 %, respiration by +37 % and increased laccase activity 12-fold alongside increases of white-rot fungal abundance +89 % (p = 0.03). Furthermore, we observed marginally significant (p = 0.06) shifts of bacterial communities in gymnosperm deadwood. In angiosperm deadwood, we did not detect consistent effects on mass loss, physico-chemical properties, extracellular enzymatic activity or changes in microbial communities except for changes in abundance of 10 fungal OTUs in seven tree species and 28 bacterial OTUs in 10 tree species. We conclude that N deposition alters decomposition processes exclusively in N limited gymnosperm deadwood in the long term by enhancing fungal activity as expressed by increases in respiration rate and extracellular enzyme activity with minor shifts in decomposing microbial communities. By contrast, deadwood of angiosperm tree species had higher N concentrations and mass loss as well as community composition did not respond to N addition.

Ambient and substrate energy influence decomposer diversity differentially across trophic levels.

The species-energy hypothesis predicts increasing biodiversity with increasing energy in ecosystems. Proxies for energy availability are often grouped into ambient energy (i.e., solar radiation) and substrate energy (i.e., non-structural carbohydrates or nutritional content). The relative importance of substrate energy is thought to decrease with increasing trophic level from primary consumers to predators, with reciprocal effects of ambient energy. Yet, empirical tests are lacking. We compiled data on 332,557 deadwood-inhabiting beetles of 901 species reared from wood of 49 tree species across Europe. Using host-phylogeny-controlled models, we show that the relative importance of substrate energy versus ambient energy decreases with increasing trophic levels: the diversity of zoophagous and mycetophagous beetles was determined by ambient energy, while non-structural carbohydrate content in woody tissues determined that of xylophagous beetles. Our study thus overall supports the species-energy hypothesis and specifies that the relative importance of ambient temperature increases with increasing trophic level with opposite effects for substrate energy.

Long-term soil warming decreases microbial phosphorus utilization by increasing abiotic phosphorus sorption and phosphorus losses.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential and often limiting element that could play a crucial role in terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate warming. However, it has yet remained unclear how different P cycling processes are affected by warming. Here we investigate the response of soil P pools and P cycling processes in a mountain forest after 14 years of soil warming (+4 °C). Long-term warming decreased soil total P pools, likely due to higher outputs of P from soils by increasing net plant P uptake and downward transportation of colloidal and particulate P. Warming increased the sorption strength to more recalcitrant soil P fractions (absorbed to iron oxyhydroxides and clays), thereby further reducing bioavailable P in soil solution. As a response, soil microbes enhanced the production of acid phosphatase, though this was not sufficient to avoid decreases of soil bioavailable P and microbial biomass P (and biotic phosphate immobilization). This study therefore highlights how long-term soil warming triggers changes in biotic and abiotic soil P pools and processes, which can potentially aggravate the P constraints of the trees and soil microbes and thereby negatively affect the C sequestration potential of these forests.

Does long-term soil warming affect microbial element limitation? A test by short-term assays of microbial growth responses to labile C, N and P additions.

Increasing global temperatures have been reported to accelerate soil carbon (C) cycling, but also to promote nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) dynamics in terrestrial ecosystems. However, warming can differentially affect ecosystem C, N and P dynamics, potentially intensifying elemental imbalances between soil resources, plants and soil microorganisms. Here, we investigated the effect of long-term soil warming on microbial resource limitation, based on measurements of microbial growth (18 O incorporation into DNA) and respiration after C, N and P amendments. Soil samples were taken from two soil depths (0-10, 10-20 cm) in control and warmed (>14 years warming, +4°C) plots in the Achenkirch soil warming experiment. Soils were amended with combinations of glucose-C, inorganic/organic N and inorganic/organic P in a full factorial design, followed by incubation at their respective mean field temperatures for 24 h. Soil microbes were generally C-limited, exhibiting 1.8-fold to 8.8-fold increases in microbial growth upon C addition. Warming consistently caused soil microorganisms to shift from being predominately C limited to become C-P co-limited. This P limitation possibly was due to increased abiotic P immobilization in warmed soils. Microbes further showed stronger growth stimulation under combined glucose and inorganic nutrient amendments compared to organic nutrient additions. This may be related to a prolonged lag phase in organic N (glucosamine) mineralization and utilization compared to glucose. Soil respiration strongly positively responded to all kinds of glucose-C amendments, while responses of microbial growth were less pronounced in many of these treatments. This highlights that respiration-though easy and cheap to measure-is not a good substitute of growth when assessing microbial element limitation. Overall, we demonstrate a significant shift in microbial element limitation in warmed soils, from C to C-P co-limitation, with strong repercussions on the linkage between soil C, N and P cycles under long-term warming.

Increase in carbon input by enhanced fine root turnover in a long-term warmed forest soil.

Fine root litter represents an important carbon input to soils, but the effect of global warming on fine root turnover (FRT) is hardly explored in forest ecosystems. Understanding tree fine roots' response to warming is crucial for predicting soil carbon dynamics and the functioning of forests as a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). We studied fine root production (FRP) with ingrowth cores and used radiocarbon signatures of first-order, second- to third-order, and bulk fine roots to estimate fine root turnover times after 8 and 14 years of soil warming (+4 °C) in a temperate forest. Fine root turnover times of the individual root fractions were estimated with a one-pool model. Soil warming strongly increased fine root production by up to 128 % within one year, but after two years, the production was less pronounced (+35 %). The first-year production was likely very high due to the rapid exploitation of the root-free ingrowth cores. The radiocarbon signatures of fine roots were overall variable among treatments and plots. Soil warming tended to decrease fine root turnover times of all the measured root fractions after 8 and 14 years of warming, and there was a tendency for trees to use older carbon reserves for fine root production in warmed plots. Furthermore, soil warming increased fine root turnover from 50 to 106 g C m-2 yr-1 (based on two different approaches). Our findings suggest that future climate warming may increase carbon input into soils by enhancing fine root turnover. If this increase may partly offset carbon losses by increased mineralization of soil organic matter in temperate forest soils is still unclear and should guide future research.

Variation in carbon and nitrogen concentrations among peatland categories at the global scale.

Peatlands account for 15 to 30% of the world's soil carbon (C) stock and are important controls over global nitrogen (N) cycles. However, C and N concentrations are known to vary among peatlands contributing to the uncertainty of global C inventories, but there are few global studies that relate peatland classification to peat chemistry. We analyzed 436 peat cores sampled in 24 countries across six continents and measured C, N, and organic matter (OM) content at three depths down to 70 cm. Sites were distinguished between northern (387) and tropical (49) peatlands and assigned to one of six distinct broadly recognized peatland categories that vary primarily along a pH gradient. Peat C and N concentrations, OM content, and C:N ratios differed significantly among peatland categories, but few differences in chemistry with depth were found within each category. Across all peatlands C and N concentrations in the 10-20 cm layer, were 440 ± 85.1 g kg-1 and 13.9 ± 7.4 g kg-1, with an average C:N ratio of 30.1 ± 20.8. Among peatland categories, median C concentrations were highest in bogs, poor fens and tropical swamps (446-532 g kg-1) and lowest in intermediate and extremely rich fens (375-414 g kg-1). The C:OM ratio in peat was similar across most peatland categories, except in deeper samples from ombrotrophic tropical peat swamps that were higher than other peatlands categories. Peat N concentrations and C:N ratios varied approximately two-fold among peatland categories and N concentrations tended to be higher (and C:N lower) in intermediate fens compared with other peatland types. This study reports on a unique data set and demonstrates that differences in peat C and OM concentrations among broadly classified peatland categories are predictable, which can aid future studies that use land cover assessments to refine global peatland C and N stocks.

Long-term soil warming alters fine root dynamics and morphology, and their ectomycorrhizal fungal community in a temperate forest soil.

Climate warming is predicted to affect temperate forests severely, but the response of fine roots, key to plant nutrition, water uptake, soil carbon, and nutrient cycling is unclear. Understanding how fine roots will respond to increasing temperature is a prerequisite for predicting the functioning of forests in a warmer climate. We studied the response of fine roots and their ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungal and root-associated bacterial communities to soil warming by 4°C in a mixed spruce-beech forest in the Austrian Limestone Alps after 8 and 14 years of soil warming, respectively. Fine root biomass (FRB) and fine root production were 17% and 128% higher in the warmed plots, respectively, after 14 years. The increase in FRB (13%) was not significant after 8 years of treatment, whereas specific root length, specific root area, and root tip density were significantly higher in warmed plots at both sampling occasions. Soil warming did not affect EcM exploration types and diversity, but changed their community composition, with an increase in the relative abundance of Cenoccocum at 0-10 cm soil depth, a drought-stress-tolerant genus, and an increase in short- and long-distance exploration types like Sebacina and Boletus at 10-20 cm soil depth. Warming increased the root-associated bacterial diversity but did not affect their community composition. Soil warming did not affect nutrient concentrations of fine roots, though we found indications of limited soil phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) availability. Our findings suggest that, in the studied ecosystem, global warming could persistently increase soil carbon inputs due to accelerated fine root growth and turnover, and could simultaneously alter fine root morphology and EcM fungal community composition toward improved nutrient foraging.

Control of carbon and nitrogen accumulation by vegetation in pristine bogs of southern Patagonia.

Peatlands are long-term sinks of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) that are exposed to anthropogenic pressure. This has often induced a vegetation shift from peat mosses towards increasing presence of vascular plants. However, the impact of this vegetation shift on the sink function of peatlands remains unclear. To address this research gap, we studied C and N accumulation in a Patagonian cushion bog where a shift to the predominance of vascular cushion plants is a natural phenomenon since millennia. For comparison, long-term accumulation and decomposition patterns in a pristine Patagonian Sphagnum bog were studied. Thereto, we determined recent and long-term rates of C and N accumulation, their within-site variability, and studied plant-macrofossils. These results were related to decomposition indicators (C/N ratio, humification index, stable isotopes) of the bog types. Despite differences in decomposition indicators, long-term rates of C accumulation were of similar magnitude in the Sphagnum (21.9 g C m-2 yr-1) and in the cushion bog (22.2 g C m-2 yr-1). N accumulation was significantly lower in the Sphagnum bog (0.35 g N m-2 yr-1) compared to the surprisingly high accumulation in the cushion bog (0.55 g N m-2 yr-1). Tephra depositions in the cushion bog about 1600 cal. Years ago presumably triggered the vegetation shift towards dominance of cushion plants by a fertilization effect. C accumulation rates during past decades in the upper decimeters of peat were four times higher in the cushion bog (245 g C m-2 yr-1) compared to the Sphagnum bog (64 g C m-2 yr-1), but substantially decreased since the appearance of cushion plants. High decomposition rates as indicated by decomposition indicators thus apparently offset the higher productivity of cushion plants in the long term. While cushion bogs appear to be effective N sinks, their C sink function may therefore be equal to Sphagnum bogs.

Plant communities control long term carbon accumulation and biogeochemical gradients in a Patagonian bog.

Peat carbon accumulation is controlled by both large scale factors, such as climate and hydrological setting, and small scale factors, such as microtopography and plant community. These small scale factors commonly vary within peatlands and can cause variation in biogeochemical traits and carbon accumulation within the same site. To understand these within-site variations, we investigated long term carbon accumulation, peat decomposition, biogeochemistry of pore water and plant macrofossils along a transect in an ombrotrophic bog in southern Patagonia. An additional question we addressed is how historical deposition of volcanic ash on the peatland has affected its carbon balance. Variability in plant community and water table led to differences in long term peat and carbon accumulation (peat moss > cushion plant), organic matter decomposition (cushion plant > peat moss), and methane production (peat moss > cushion plant). Macrofossil analysis and radiocarbon dating indicated a relationship between plant community and carbon accumulation or decomposition during the historical succession of vegetation in the peatland. C/N ratio and isotopic signatures reflected variability in plant community as litter source, and DOC concentrations were controlled by humification level. Volcanic ash deposition had only limited effect on plant composition, but it was associated with increased decomposition in overlying peat layers. This study highlights the importance of understanding how plant communities develop, as changes in communities could significantly affect the potential of ombrotrophic peatlands as C sink.

Adaptive root foraging strategies along a boreal-temperate forest gradient.

The tree root-mycorhizosphere plays a key role in resource uptake, but also in the adaptation of forests to changing environments. The adaptive foraging mechanisms of ectomycorrhizal (EcM) and fine roots of Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris and Betula pendula were evaluated along a gradient from temperate to subarctic boreal forest (38 sites between latitudes 48°N and 69°N) in Europe. Variables describing tree resource uptake structures and processes (absorptive fine root biomass and morphology, nitrogen (N) concentration in absorptive roots, extramatrical mycelium (EMM) biomass, community structure of root-associated EcM fungi, soil and rhizosphere bacteria) were used to analyse relationships between root system functional traits and climate, soil and stand characteristics. Absorptive fine root biomass per stand basal area increased significantly from temperate to boreal forests, coinciding with longer and thinner root tips with higher tissue density, smaller EMM biomass per root length and a shift in soil microbial community structure. The soil carbon (C) : N ratio was found to explain most of the variability in absorptive fine root and EMM biomass, root tissue density, N concentration and rhizosphere bacterial community structure. We suggest a concept of absorptive fine root foraging strategies involving both qualitative and quantitative changes in the root-mycorrhiza-bacteria continuum along climate and soil C : N gradients.

Associative nitrogen fixation in nodules of the conifer Lepidothamnus fonkii (Podocarpaceae) inhabiting ombrotrophic bogs in southern Patagonia.

Biological N2 fixation (BNF) in the rhizosphere of Podocarpaceae is currently attributed to unspecific diazotrophs with negligible impact on N acquisition. Here, we report specific and high associative BNF in dead cells of root nodules of Lepidothamnus fonkii distributed in ombrotrophic peatlands of Patagonia. BNF of nodulated roots, intact plants of L. fonkii and rhizospheric peat was assessed by 15N2 and acetylene reduction. Diazotrophs were identified by electron microscopy, analysis of nitrogenase encoding genes (nifH) and transcripts, and 16S rRNA. Nitrogenase encoding nifH transcripts from root nodules point to Beijerinckiaceae (Rhizobiales), known as free-living diazotrophs. Electron microscopy and 16S rRNA analysis likewise identified active Beijerinckiaceae in outer dead cells of root nodules. NifH transcripts from the rhizopshere peat revealed diverse active diazotrophs including Beijerinckiaceae. Both methods revealed high activity of nitrogenase rates in cut roots of L. fonkii (2.5 µmol N g-1 d.w. d-1 based on 15N2 assay; 2.4 µmol C2H4 g-1 d.w. d-1 based on acetylene reduction assay). The data suggest that (i) nodules recruit diazotrophic Beijerinckiaceae from peat, (ii) dead nodule cells provide an exclusive habitat for Beijerinckiaceae, and (iii) BNF in L. fonkii is one potent pathway to overcome N deficiency in ombrotrophic peatlands of Patagonia.

Little effects on soil organic matter chemistry of density fractions after seven years of forest soil warming.

Rising temperatures enhance microbial decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) and thereby increase the soil CO2 efflux. Elevated decomposition rates might differently affect distinct SOM pools, depending on their stability and accessibility. Soil fractions derived from density fractionation have been suggested to represent SOM pools with different turnover times and stability against microbial decomposition. To investigate the effect of soil warming on functionally different soil organic matter pools, we here investigated the chemical and isotopic composition of bulk soil and three density fractions (free particulate organic matter, fPOM; occluded particulate organic matter, oPOM; and mineral associated organic matter, MaOM) of a C-rich soil from a long-term warming experiment in a spruce forest in the Austrian Alps. At the time of sampling, the soil in this experiment had been warmed during the snow-free period for seven consecutive years. During that time no thermal adaptation of the microbial community could be identified and CO2 release from the soil continued to be elevated by the warming treatment. Our results, which included organic carbon content, total nitrogen content, δ13C, Δ14C, δ15N and the chemical composition, identified by pyrolysis-GC/MS, showed no significant differences in bulk soil between warming treatment and control. Surprisingly, the differences in the three density fractions were mostly small and the direction of warming induced change was variable with fraction and soil depth. Warming led to reduced N content in topsoil oPOM and subsoil fPOM and to reduced relative abundance of N-bearing compounds in subsoil MaOM. Further, warming increased the δ13C of MaOM at both sampling depths, reduced the relative abundance of carbohydrates while it increased the relative abundance of lignins in subsoil oPOM. As the size of the functionally different SOM pools did not significantly change, we assume that the few and small modifications in SOM chemistry result from an interplay of enhanced microbial decomposition of SOM and increased root litter input in the warmed plots. Overall, stable functional SOM pool sizes indicate that soil warming had similarly affected easily decomposable and stabilized SOM of this C-rich forest soil.

Redistribution of soil water by a saprotrophic fungus enhances carbon mineralization.

The desiccation of upper soil horizons is a common phenomenon, leading to a decrease in soil microbial activity and mineralization. Recent studies have shown that fungal communities and fungal-based food webs are less sensitive and better adapted to soil desiccation than bacterial-based food webs. One reason for a better fungal adaptation to soil desiccation may be hydraulic redistribution of water by mycelia networks. Here we show that a saprotrophic fungus (Agaricus bisporus) redistributes water from moist (-0.03 MPa) into dry (-9.5 MPa) soil at about 0.3 cm ⋅ min(-1) in single hyphae, resulting in an increase in soil water potential after 72 h. The increase in soil moisture by hydraulic redistribution significantly enhanced carbon mineralization by 2,800% and enzymatic activity by 250-350% in the previously dry soil compartment within 168 h. Our results demonstrate that hydraulic redistribution can partly compensate water deficiency if water is available in other zones of the mycelia network. Hydraulic redistribution is likely one of the mechanisms behind higher drought resistance of soil fungi compared with bacteria. Moreover, hydraulic redistribution by saprotrophic fungi is an underrated pathway of water transport in soils and may lead to a transfer of water to zones of high fungal activity.

Contribution of carbonate weathering to the CO2 efflux from temperate forest soils.

Temperate forests provide favorable conditions for carbonate bedrock weathering as the soil CO2 partial pressure is high and soil water is regularly available. As a result of weathering, abiotic CO2 can be released and contribute to the soil CO2 efflux. We used the distinct isotopic signature of the abiotic CO2 to estimate its contribution to the total soil CO2 efflux. Soil cores were sampled from forests on dolomite and limestone and were incubated under the exclusion of atmospheric CO2. Efflux and isotopic signatures of CO2 were repeatedly measured of cores containing the whole mineral soil and bedrock material (heterotrophic respiration + CO2 from weathering) and of cores containing only the mineral top-soil layer (A-horizon; heterotrophic respiration). An aliquot of the cores were let dry out during incubation to assess effects of soil moisture. Although the δ13C values of the CO2 efflux from the dolomite soil cores were within a narrow range (A-horizon -26.2 ± 0.1 ‰; whole soil profile wet -25.8 ± 0.1 ‰; whole soil profile dry -25.5 ± 0.1 ‰) the CO2 efflux from the separated A-horizons was significantly depleted in 13C when compared to the whole soil profiles (p = 0.015). The abiotic contribution to the total CO2 efflux from the dolomite soil cores was 2.0 ± 0.5 % under wet and 3.4 ± 0.5 % under dry conditions. No abiotic CO2 efflux was traceable from the limestone soil cores. An overall low contribution of CO2 from weathering was affirmed by the amount and 13C signature of the leached dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and the radiocarbon signature of the soil CO2 efflux in the field. Together, our data point towards no more than 1-2 % contribution of abiotic CO2 to the growing season soil CO2 efflux in the field.

Microbial physiology and soil CO2 efflux after 9 years of soil warming in a temperate forest - no indications for thermal adaptations.

Thermal adaptations of soil microorganisms could mitigate or facilitate global warming effects on soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition and soil CO2 efflux. We incubated soil from warmed and control subplots of a forest soil warming experiment to assess whether 9 years of soil warming affected the rates and the temperature sensitivity of the soil CO2 efflux, extracellular enzyme activities, microbial efficiency, and gross N mineralization. Mineral soil (0-10 cm depth) was incubated at temperatures ranging from 3 to 23 °C. No adaptations to long-term warming were observed regarding the heterotrophic soil CO2 efflux (R10 warmed: 2.31 ± 0.15 µmol m(-2)  s(-1) , control: 2.34 ± 0.29 µmol m(-2)  s(-1) ; Q10 warmed: 2.45 ± 0.06, control: 2.45 ± 0.04). Potential enzyme activities increased with incubation temperature, but the temperature sensitivity of the enzymes did not differ between the warmed and the control soils. The ratio of C : N acquiring enzyme activities was significantly higher in the warmed soil. Microbial biomass-specific respiration rates increased with incubation temperature, but the rates and the temperature sensitivity (Q10 warmed: 2.54 ± 0.23, control 2.75 ± 0.17) did not differ between warmed and control soils. Microbial substrate use efficiency (SUE) declined with increasing incubation temperature in both, warmed and control, soils. SUE and its temperature sensitivity (Q10 warmed: 0.84 ± 0.03, control: 0.88 ± 0.01) did not differ between warmed and control soils either. Gross N mineralization was invariant to incubation temperature and was not affected by long-term soil warming. Our results indicate that thermal adaptations of the microbial decomposer community are unlikely to occur in C-rich calcareous temperate forest soils.

Significant nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation in Patagonian ombrotrophic bogs.

Nitrogen (N) nutrition in pristine peatlands relies on the natural input of inorganic N through atmospheric deposition or biological dinitrogen (N2 ) fixation. However, N2 fixation and its significance for N cycling, plant productivity, and peat buildup are mostly associated with the presence of Sphagnum mosses. Here, we report high nonsymbiotic N2 -fixation rates in two pristine Patagonian bogs with diversified vegetation and natural N deposition. Nonsymbiotic N2 fixation was measured in samples from 0 to 10, 10 to 20, and 40 to 50 cm depth using the (15) N2 assay as well as the acetylene reduction assay (ARA). The ARA considerably underestimated N2 fixation and can thus not be recommended for peatland studies. Based on the (15) N2 assay, high nonsymbiotic N2 -fixation rates of 0.3-1.4 µmol N2  g(-1)  day(-1) were found down to 50 cm under micro-oxic conditions (2 vol.%) in samples from plots covered by Sphagnum magellanicum or by vascular cushion plants, latter characterized by dense and deep aerenchyma roots. Peat N concentrations point to greater potential of nonsymbiotic N2 fixation under cushion plants, likely because of the availability of easily decomposable organic compounds and oxic conditions in the rhizosphere. In the Sphagnum plots, high N2 fixation below 10 cm depth rather reflects the potential during dry periods or low water level when oxygen penetrates the top peat layer and triggers peat mineralization. Natural abundance of the (15) N isotope of live Sphagnum (5.6 δ‰) from 0 to 10 cm points to solely N uptake from atmospheric deposition and nonsymbiotic N2 fixation. A mean (15) N signature of -0.7 δ‰ of peat from the cushion plant plots indicates additional N supply from N mineralization. Our findings suggest that nonsymbiotic N2 fixation overcomes N deficiency in different vegetation communities and has great significance for N cycling and peat accumulation in pristine peatlands.