Longitudinal study of neonatal brain tissue volumes in preterm infants and their ability to predict neurodevelopmental outcome.

Premature birth has been associated with poor neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, the relation between such outcomes and brain growth in the neonatal period has not yet been fully elucidated. This study investigates longitudinal brain development between birth and term-equivalent age (TEA) by quantitative imaging in a cohort of premature infants born between 26 and 36 weeks gestational age (GA), to provide insight into the relation of brain growth with later neurodevelopmental outcomes. Longitudinal T2-weighted magnetic resonance images (MRI) of 84 prematurely born infants acquired shortly after birth and TEA were automatically segmented into cortical gray matter (CGM), unmyelinated white matter (UWM), subcortical gray matter (SGM), cerebellum (CB) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). General linear models and correlation analysis were used to study the relation between brain volumes and their growth, and perinatal variables. To investigate the ability of the brain volumes to predict children's neurodevelopmental outcome at 18-24 months and at 5 years of age, a linear discriminant analysis classifier was tested and several general linear models were fitted and compared by statistical tests. From birth to TEA, relative volumes of CGM, CB and CSF with respect to total intracranial volume increased, while relative volumes of UWM and SGM decreased. The fastest growing tissues between birth and TEA were found to be the CB and the CGM. Lower GA at birth was associated with lower growth rates of CGM, CB and total tissue. Among perinatal factors, persistent ductus arteriosus was associated with lower SGM, CB and IC growth rates, while sepsis was associated with lower CSF and intracranial volume growth rates. Model comparisons showed that brain tissue volumes at birth and at TEA contributed to the prediction of motor outcomes at 18-24 months, while volumes at TEA and volume growth rates contributed to the prediction of cognitive scores at 5 years of age. The family socio-economic status (SES) was not correlated with brain volumes at birth or at TEA, but was strongly associated with the cognitive outcomes at 18-24 months and 5 years of age. This study provides information about brain growth between birth and TEA in premature children with no focal brain lesions, and investigates their association with subsequent neurodevelopmental outcome. Parental SES was found to be a major determinant of neurodevelopmental outcome, unrelated to brain growth. However, further research is necessary in order to fully explain the variability of neurodevelopmental outcomes in this population.

[Detection of executive function disorders with a standard neurodevelopmental follow-up of premature children]. / Suivi neurodéveloppemental à 5 ans des extrêmes prématurés et détection des difficultés sur le plan des fonctions exécutives.

INTRODUCTION: A significant proportion of prematurely born children encounter behavioral difficulties, such as attention deficit or hyperactivity, which could be due to executive function disorders. AIMS: To examine whether the standard neurodevelopmental assessment offered to premature children in Switzerland recognizes executive function disorders. METHODS: The study population consisted of 49 children born before 29 weeks of gestation who were examined between 5 and 6 years of age with a standard assessment, with additional items to assess executive functioning. Children with severe neurodevelopmental impairment were excluded (mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism). Standard assessment consisted in the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), which comprises three subscales: sequential processes (analysis of sequential information), simultaneous processes (global analysis of visual information), and composite mental processes (CMP) (result of the other two scales), as well as a behavioral evaluation using the standardized Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Executive functioning was assessed with tasks evaluating visual attention, divided attention, and digit memory as well as with a specialized questionnaire, the Behavior Rating Index of Executive Functions (BRIEF), which evaluates several aspects of executive function (regulation, attention, flexibility, working memory, etc). RESULTS: Children were divided according to their results on the three K-ABC scales (< or >85), and the different neuropsychological tasks assessing executive function were compared between the groups. The CMP did not differentiate children with executive difficulties, whereas a score < 85 on the sequential processes was significantly associated with worse visual and divided attention. There was a strong correlation between the SDQ and the BRIEF questionnaires. For both questionnaires, children receiving psychotherapy had significantly higher results. Children who presented behavioral problems assessed with the SDQ presented significantly higher scores on the BRIEF. CONCLUSION: A detailed analysis of the standard neurodevelopmental assessment allows the identification of executive function disorders in premature children. Children who performed below 85 on the sequential processes of the K-ABC had significantly more attentional difficulties on the neuropsychological tasks and therefore have to be recognized and carefully followed. Emotional regulation had a strong correlation with behavioral difficulties, which were suitably assessed with the SDQ, recognized by the families, and treated.

[Development of executive functions in preterm children]. / Développement des fonctions exécutives de l'enfant prématuré.

The rate of children born prematurely has increased considerably in the last few decades, and their developmental outcome remains of great concern. The literature on the impact of prematurity has reported a wide range of cognitive and behavioral problems that may be related to deficits in executive function (EF) skills. EF refers to a series of high-level processes (selective attention, inhibition, set shifting, working memory, planning, goal setting) that develop throughout childhood and adolescence and play an important role in cognitive and social development as well as in school achievement. EF skills have been linked to the prefrontal cortex, as well as to other neural networks and brain regions including the basal ganglia and cerebellum. This paper focuses on studies related to the development of EF and social behavior in children born preterm. The preschool period is a critical time to perform neuropsychological assessment in addition to IQ testing, and to detect the child's specific needs in order to adapt effective intervention to enhance the development of executive processes in these high-risk children.

[Neurodevelopmental outcome of very premature infants]. / Devenir et prise en charge des enfants grands prématurés.

Very preterm infants are at risk of neurodevelopmental impairments, which may affect motor development, intelligence and behavior. Neurodevelopmental follow-up is offered to these children who represent 1% of Swiss births, and may show abnormal motor tone, which sometimes resolves spontaneously or evolves in cerebral palsy. Standardized tests explore intellectual functioning and may allow the diagnosis of specific learning impediments. Finally, behavior is assessed with standardized questionnaires which can reveal hyperactivity with or without attention deficit, impaired social relations, psychiatric troubles or autism, all more frequent amongst preterm children.

Emotional reactivity at 12 months in very preterm infants born at <29 weeks of gestation.

The present study evaluated the socio-emotional development of very preterm born infants at 12 months corrected age. Forty-one infants born very preterm (<29 weeks of gestation) were compared to 22 infants born full term on a standardized behavioral assessment and a parental temperament questionnaire, both measuring emotional reactivity to joy, anger and fear, as well as sustained attention. The behavioral assessment showed that very preterm infants exhibited as much joy as full term infants during a joy-eliciting episode. However, they expressed a significantly higher reactivity in anger-eliciting situations and a reduced reactivity toward fear-eliciting situations. For all three emotion-eliciting situations, the preterm infants reacted with a higher level of motor activity. The preterm infants also exhibited a distinct attention pattern with a significantly higher initial attention level which declined rapidly throughout the episode. The questionnaire did not show any group differences. The clinical relevance of these results in terms of preliminary hallmarks of later behavioral difficulties such attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder are discussed as well as the inconsistencies observed between the questionnaire and the behavioral assessment.

[Development and assessment of a sensory-motor scale for the neonate: a clinical tool at the bedside]. / Élaboration et validation de contenu d'une grille d'observation du comportement sensorimoteur du nouveau-né à l'usage du personnel soignant.

INTRODUCTION: Improved perinatal care has increased the survival of newborns. However, neonatal intensive care is a source of nociceptive stimuli that may have a negative long-term impact on the child's neurobehavioral development. During the period of maximal brain plasticity, supportive developmental care can therefore be beneficial. The purpose of this study was to develop an assessment tool of neonatal behavior for daily use by healthcare providers and validate its content. METHOD: A behavioral assessment tool starting off with 45 clinical variables in 6 areas of sensory-motor behavior was validated in two stages using footage of babies between 25 and 37 weeks gestational age. The intraclass correlation coefficient of 65 evaluations allowed simplification of the tool down to 23 variables, prior to a final analysis of validity and reliability. RESULTS: For the 23 variables, the reliability between observers was low for 7 (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]<0.4), fair for 4 (ICC 0.4-0.5) and good for 12 (ICC>0.5). The agreement between novice and expert observers ranged from 46.7% to 98.7%. Twenty variables had a level of agreement above 60%. CONCLUSIONS: This validation study of a newborn sensory-motor behavior assessment scale has identified pertinent variables for a structured assessment by healthcare providers.

[Neurodevelopmental follow-up of premature children in Lausanne and Geneva]. / Suivi neurodéveloppemental de l'enfant né prématuré dans l'Arc lémanique.

Preterm children born before 32 weeks of gestation represent 1% of the annual births in Switzerland, and are the most at risk of neurodevelopmental disabilities. A neurological surveillance is thus implemented in the neonatal units, and multidisciplinary neurodevelopmental follow-up is offered to all our preterm patients. The follow-up clinics of the University hospitals in Lausanne and Geneva follow the Swiss guidelines for follow-up. An extended history and neurological examination is taken at each appointment, and a standardized test of development is performed. These examinations, which take place between the ages of 3 months and 9 years old, allow the early identification and treatment of developmental disorders frequent in this population, such as motor, cognitive or behavioral disorders, as well as the monitoring of the quality of neonatal care.

[Pediatrics. Developmental care in neonatology]. / Pédiatrie. 1. Les soins de soutien au développement en néonatologie.

Developmental care is a multidisciplinary approach aiming at improving the premature newborn's well-being through individualized observation and care, and at limiting environmental nociceptive stimuli. The aim is to lessen neonatal morbidity and enhance long-term psychomotor development in this population of high-risk newborns.

Structural asymmetries of perisylvian regions in the preterm newborn.

During the last trimester of human pregnancy, the cerebral cortex of foetuses becomes greatly and quickly gyrified, and post-mortem studies have demonstrated that hemispheres are already asymmetric at the level of Heschl gyrus, planum temporale and superior temporal sulcus (STS). Recently, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and dedicated post-processing tools enabled the quantitative study of brain development non-invasively in the preterm newborn. However, previous investigations were conducted either over the whole brain or in specific sulci. These approaches may consequently fail to highlight most cerebral sites, where anatomical landmarks are hard to delineate among individuals. In this cross-sectional study, we aimed to blindly and automatically map early asymmetries over the immature cortex. Voxel-based analyses of cortical and white matter masks were performed over a group of 25 newborns from 26 to 36 weeks of gestational age. Inter-individual variations associated with increasing age were first detected in large cerebral regions, with a prevalence of the right hemisphere in comparison with the left. Asymmetries were further highlighted in three specific cortical regions. Confirming previous studies, we observed deeper STS on the right side and larger posterior region of the sylvian fissure on the left side, close to planum temporale. For the first time, we also detected larger anterior region of the sylvian fissure on the left side, close to Broca's region. This study demonstrated that perisylvian regions are the only regions to be asymmetric from early on, suggesting their anatomical specificity for the emergence of functional lateralization in language processing prior to language exposure.

Attentional networks efficiency in preterm children.

Recent studies have reported specific executive and attentional deficits in preterm children. However, the majority of this research has used multidetermined tasks to assess these abilities, and the interpretation of the results lacks an explicit theoretical backdrop to better understand the origin of the difficulties observed. In the present study, we used the Child Attention Network Task (Child ANT; Rueda et al. 2004) to assess the efficiency of the alerting, orienting and executive control networks. We compared the performance of 25 preterm children (gestational age < or = 32 weeks) to 25 full-term children, all between 5(1/2) and 6(1/2) years of age. Results showed that, as compared to full-term children, preterm children were slower on all conditions of the Child ANT and had a specific deficit in executive control abilities. We also observed a significantly higher correlation between the orienting and executive control networks in the preterm group, suggesting less differentiation of these two networks in this population.

Primary cortical folding in the human newborn: an early marker of later functional development.

In the human brain, the morphology of cortical gyri and sulci is complex and variable among individuals, and it may reflect pathological functioning with specific abnormalities observed in certain developmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Since cortical folding occurs early during brain development, these structural abnormalities might be present long before the appearance of functional symptoms. So far, the precise mechanisms responsible for such alteration in the convolution pattern during intra-uterine or post-natal development are still poorly understood. Here we compared anatomical and functional brain development in vivo among 45 premature newborns who experienced different intra-uterine environments: 22 normal singletons, 12 twins and 11 newborns with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and dedicated post-processing tools, we investigated early disturbances in cortical formation at birth, over the developmental period critical for the emergence of convolutions (26-36 weeks of gestational age), and defined early 'endophenotypes' of sulcal development. We demonstrated that twins have a delayed but harmonious maturation, with reduced surface and sulcation index compared to singletons, whereas the gyrification of IUGR newborns is discordant to the normal developmental trajectory, with a more pronounced reduction of surface in relation to the sulcation index compared to normal newborns. Furthermore, we showed that these structural measurements of the brain at birth are predictors of infants' outcome at term equivalent age, for MRI-based cerebral volumes and neurobehavioural development evaluated with the assessment of preterm infant's behaviour (APIB).

[Intrauterine growth restriction: impact on brain development and function]. / Retard de croissance intra-utérin: impact sur le développement et tla fonction cérébrale.

Evidence exists that the developing organism adapts to the environment it finds itself. Short and long-term adjustments take place and will initially induce intrauterine growth retardation but will also have consequences that will appear later in life. These adjustments are referred as "programming". The use of advanced magnetic resonance imaging techniques in IUGR babies has delineated changes in the development of the central nervous system that correlate with altered neurodevelopment and could be implicated in the development of neuropsychiatric disorders in adult life. In this review, we will delineate some modifications of CNS development and functions that occur after exposition to adverse environment and that can now be studied in vivo with advanced imaging technology.

Mapping the early cortical folding process in the preterm newborn brain.

In the developing human brain, the cortical sulci formation is a complex process starting from 14 weeks of gestation onward. The potential influence of underlying mechanisms (genetic, epigenetic, mechanical or environmental) is still poorly understood, because reliable quantification in vivo of the early folding is lacking. In this study, we investigate the sulcal emergence noninvasively in 35 preterm newborns, by applying dedicated postprocessing tools to magnetic resonance images acquired shortly after birth over a developmental period critical for the human cortex maturation (26-36 weeks of age). Through the original three-dimensional reconstruction of the interface between developing cortex and white matter and correlation with volumetric measurements, we document early sulcation in vivo, and quantify changes with age, gender, and the presence of small white matter lesions. We observe a trend towards lower cortical surface, smaller cortex, and white matter volumes, but equivalent sulcation in females compared with males. By precisely mapping the sulci, we highlight interindividual variability in time appearance and interhemispherical asymmetries, with a larger right superior temporal sulcus than the left. Thus, such an approach, included in a longitudinal follow-up, may provide early indicators on the structural basis of cortical functional specialization and abnormalities induced by genetic and environmental factors.

[Children with chronic renal failure: evaluation of the nutritional status and management]. / L'enfant insuffisant rénal chronique: évaluation de l'état nutritionnel et prise en charge.

Since malnutrition is a well recognized problem in children with chronic renal failure, nutritional management of these children is essential. This review describes methods for nutritional assessment and suggests guidelines for providing maximal dietary support in children with chronic renal insufficiency. Optimal nutritional management includes an adequate caloric and protein intake, a restriction of phosphorus intake and an appropriate intake of electrolytes and vitamins.