Temperament and emotional overeating: the mediating role of caregiver response to children's negative emotions.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the mediating effects of caregiver responses to a child's negative emotions on the associations between infant temperament and emotional overeating in preschool children. Method: A sample of 358 children and their caregivers enrolled in the STRONG Kids 2 (SK2) birth cohort study (N = 468) provided data for this analysis. Caregivers completed questionnaires assessing child temperament at 3 months, caregiver response to negative emotions at 18 months, and child emotional overeating at 36 months. Structural Equation Modeling was conducted using the lavaan package in RStudio to test hypothesized models examining whether the relations between early temperament and subsequent emotional eating were mediated by caregiver responses to a child's emotions. Results: Findings revealed that infant temperamental orienting/regulation predicted the later development of emotional overeating through supportive caregiver responses to a child's negative emotions. Lower levels of orienting/regulation were associated with greater emotional overeating, explained by less supportive caregiver responses to the child's emotions. Moreover, infant surgency had a positive direct influence on emotional overeating at 36 months. Both supportive and non-supportive caregiver responses to a child's negative emotions had significant direct influences on emotional overeating. Conclusion: The results highlight the importance of caregiver response to a child's negative emotions as a mediator between infant temperament and emotional overeating in preschool children. Intervention strategies can be implemented to support caregivers in adopting supportive responses to their child's negative emotions to promote healthy eating behaviors from early childhood. Future studies are needed to explore these pathways of influences throughout child development.

Self-regulation linking the quality of early parent-child relationship to adolescents' obesity risk and food consumption.

BACKGROUND: The quality of parent-child relationships has been examined as a contributor to children's healthy behaviours and weight outcomes, but the mechanisms accounting for associations remain understudied. OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether the quality of early parent-child relationship is associated with adolescent obesity risk and whether self-regulation and (un)healthful food consumption mediate these associations. METHODS: Employing structural equation modelling, two theory-driven models were examined using a large sample (N = 1237) drawn from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Indicators of the quality of parent-child relationship included assessments of child attachment security and observational assessments of maternal sensitivity (15, 24, and 36 months). Self-regulation at 54 months was assessed using behavioural and computerized tasks and, at ages 11-12 and 15 years, using parental ratings of self-control. Food consumption was self-reported at age 11-12. Height and weight measures in early/middle childhood and adolescence were used to compute BMI z-scores. RESULTS: No direct associations between the quality of parent-child relationship and adolescent obesity risk were found in either model. Instead, child self-regulation was found to mediate the associations between the quality of parent-child relationship and both unhealthy food consumption and higher adolescent BMI status. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight how the nature of parent-child relationships impacts developing regulatory processes in children which, in turn, have implications for obesity-related behaviours and outcomes. Interventions to reduce childhood obesity should consider self-regulation skills across multiple domains, and early parenting practices that foster these capacities.

Adherence to Screen Time and Physical Activity Guidelines is Associated with Executive Function in US Toddlers Participating in the STRONG Kids 2 Birth Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that healthy weight status and adherence to American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guidelines for diet and physical activity would extend to greater executive function (EF) at age 24 months. STUDY DESIGN: Parents of 24-month-old children from the STRONG Kids 2 cohort study (n = 352) completed the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function for Preschoolers (BRIEF-P) and reported physical activities, diet, and screen time. Toddlers met AAP guidelines if they consumed at least 5 servings of fruits and vegetables, were physically active, refrained from sugar-sweetened beverages, and limited daily screen time to <60 minutes. Relationships between EF, 24-month weight status, and meeting AAP guidelines were tested independent of child sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, weight status at birth, and maternal pregnancy weight status. RESULTS: Weight-for-length z-score had no effect on EF. Toddlers meeting the screen time guideline had greater EF (ß, -0.125; 95% CI, 0.234 to -0.008), inhibitory self-control (ß, -0.142; 95% CI, -0.248 to -0.029), and emergent metacognition (ß, -0.111; 95% CI, -0.221 to 0.002), indicated by lower BRIEF-P scores. Those with more minutes of screen time had poorer overall EF (ß, 0.257; 95% CI, 0.118-0.384), inhibitory self-control (ß, 0.231; 95% CI, 0.099-0.354), cognitive flexibility (ß, 0.217; 95% CI, 0.082-0.342), and emergent metacognition (ß, 0.257; 95% CI, 0.120-0.381). Daily physical activity was associated with greater emergent metacognition (ß, -0.116; 95% CI, -0.225 to -0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Meeting AAP guidelines for physical activity and screen time was related to greater EF in a demographically homogenous sample of toddlers. Future randomized control trials and more diverse samples are needed to confirm the directionality of this relationship. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03341858.

Infant temperament and mealtime distractions as predictors of preschool Children's bite speed during family mealtime.

Eating behaviors are shaped at an early age, persist into adulthood, and are implicated in the development of physical health outcomes, including obesity. Faster bite speed has been identified as an obesogenic eating behavior, prompting researchers to examine child and family factors associated with children's variability in bite speed. Child temperament, involving phenotypes of reactivity and regulation, and distractions in family food contexts are fruitful areas of investigation, but few studies have examined the interplay among these factors and their associations with bite speed. To address the gap in the literature, we examined relations between early child temperament, family mealtime distractions, and children's observed bite speed. Caregiver report of child temperament at 3 months was measured using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Very Short Form - Revised. Child mealtime distractions and bite speed were assessed using family mealtime videos that were collected during home visits when children were 18-24 months of age (n = 109). Results revealed that children who were reported to be higher on orienting/regulation at 3 months, and who were more distracted during mealtimes at 18-24 months, had relatively slower bite speeds. No significant interactions were found. The findings from this correlational study inform further investigations into the implications of early temperament and food contexts for the development of eating behaviors implicated in obesity risk.

Influences of Child Temperament and Household Chaos on Preschoolers' Emotional Eating.

Background: Emotional eating has been linked to child temperament and family environment factors, such as household chaos. However, few studies have examined how child and home characteristics independently and together influence children's overeating and undereating in response to negative emotions. Objective: The current study examined associations among child temperament, household chaos, and emotional eating in children 18-24 months of age, and interaction effects were also tested. Methods: The study included an analysis sample of 371 families participating in the larger STRONG Kids2 longitudinal birth cohort study (N = 468). The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire was used to assess child temperament at 18 months, and the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale was used to assess disorganization in the household at 24 months. Child emotional eating at 24 months was assessed using parental reports of the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Results: Negative affectivity and household chaos were independently associated with child emotional overeating. Negative affectivity, effortful control, and household chaos were significantly associated with emotional undereating. No significant interactions were found. Conclusions: Child temperament and household environment independently influence emotional eating in young children, highlighting the need to consider these factors in early prevention. Longitudinal studies are warranted to determine mechanisms that may be involved in these relations.

Exploring parents' perspectives on feeding their young children: a qualitative study using photo-elicitation in Chile.

OBJECTIVE: Childhood obesity is considered one of the most important public health problems around the world. Chile is currently one of the Latin American countries with a high prevalence of childhood obesity. Given that parents' food parenting practices shape their children's lifelong eating habits, addressing those practices is key to curbing later problems of obesity. However, studies of the influences on Chilean parents' food parenting practices are scarce. Hence, this study explores factors that influence food parenting practices of preschool-aged children in Chile. DESIGN: Qualitative research, using interviews with the photo-elicitation technique. SETTING: Metropolitan Region, Chile. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-five parents from families recruited from public childcare centres. RESULTS: Through a thematic analysis with an inductive approach, we identified five themes that influence food parenting practices: (1) parents' previous experiences and how they determine their current goals and beliefs; (2) responses to the child's characteristics; (3) the influences of other family members, especially grandparents; (4) parents' nutritional knowledge; and (5) living contexts, especially limited budgets and lack of time. CONCLUSIONS: The study reveals multilevel influences, which converge at the family level, on food parenting practices. A family-centrerd approach that addresses the mentioned influences is necessary to improve the management of the childhood obesity problem in Chile.

The Impact of Household Chaos and Dietary Intake on Executive Function in Young Children.

Children's executive functions (EFs) emerge over time and can be shaped by household environments and dietary intake. However, there is a lack of knowledge about how these factors influence EFs in children aged 18-24 months. This study tested a model exploring the relations between parent-reported dietary intake, household chaos, and child EF. The sample consisted of 294 families participating in the STRONG Kids2 birth cohort study of nutrition and child health. Caregivers completed the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS), and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function®-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P) to assess model variables. Regression analyses revealed a significant and independent association between assorted snacks and processed foods and two EF subscales. There were also significant associations between household chaos and each EF subscale. There was no significant moderation effect. These findings suggest that family households characterized by dysregulation are associated with children's EF difficulties during early childhood and that the role of unhealthy dietary intake in child EF should be explored further. Future longitudinal studies that include multi-method approaches are needed to document the mechanisms through which household chaos impacts child EF over time.

Relation between Attachment and Obesity in Preschool Years: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Increasing evidence suggests that attachment plays an important role in obesity. However, few studies examined this relationship in preschool children. This study aimed to systematically examine the empirical, peer-reviewed evidence regarding the relationship between attachment quality and obesity in the preschool years. Using established guidelines, relevant peer-reviewed literature published between 2000 and July 2021 was searched through EBSCO. This yielded a total of 1124 records for review. Established inclusion criteria comprised: empirical studies published in peer-review journals; include at least one anthropometric measure and/or food consumption measure. Exclusion criteria comprised: attachment measures not following Bowlby-Ainsworth conceptualization of the construct; children in institutionalized settings; context of severe mental illness, documented substance use disorders, or eating disorders; include only a measure of the psychological aspects of eating; intervention programs. After exclusions, eight studies with a total of 9225 participants met the inclusion criteria. Results support the role of attachment in weight-related outcomes, suggesting that considering attachment in the risk of obesity could contribute to the elaboration of effective prevention and intervention programs. Limitations included the small number of studies, predominately cross-sectional designs, the diversity of methodologies, most samples not including fathers, and lack of evidence about the developmental mechanisms underlying the association between attachment and obesity. More evidence is needed to determine how attachment and obesity are linked, and the potential underlying mechanisms accounting for this relationship.

Early Child Care Experiences and Attachment Representations at Age 18 Years: Evidence from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development.

The role of early child care experiences on the development of the mother-child attachment relationship has been studied extensively. However, no prospective studies of early child care have addressed how these experiences might be reflected in the content of attachment representations during adolescence and beyond. The goal of this study was to estimate relatively precise associations between child care quality, child care quantity, and type of care in the first 54 months of life and the content of adolescents' attachment representations around age 18 years (N = 857; 51% female; 78% White, non-Hispanic; M income-to-needs ratio = 4.13), leveraging data from the longitudinal NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD). We identified a small positive association between the observed quality of early child care (but not quantity or type of care) and secure attachment states of mind as measured by the Adult Attachment Interview (but not the Attachment Script Assessment) at age 18 years that was robust to demographic covariates and observations of maternal and paternal sensitivity during childhood. We observed no significant interactions among child care variables. Associations between early child care experiences and indicators of adolescent attachment were likewise not moderated by maternal sensitivity from infancy to mid-adolescence or by maternal reports of child temperament in early childhood.

Caregivers' Perceived Emotional and Feeding Responsiveness toward Preschool Children: Associations and Paths of Influence.

Although there is a large body of research connecting emotion to eating behaviors, little is known about the role of caregivers' responses to children's emotions in the context of child feeding. The purpose of this study was to analyze the relation between caregivers' emotional responsiveness and feeding responsiveness. The mothers of 137 children between 2 and 6 years of age reported on their responses to children's negative emotions using the Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale and on their feeding practices using the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire. The results showed that mothers' supportive emotion responses (e.g., problem-focused, emotion-focused, and expressive encouragement reactions) tend to be positively associated with responsive feeding practices (e.g., encouraging, modelling, and teaching healthy food-related behaviors). Instead, mothers' unsupportive responses (e.g., distress, punitive and minimization reactions) tend to be positively associated with nonresponsive feeding practices (e.g., food as reward or to regulate emotions, and pressure to eat) and negatively associated with responsive feeding practices. Our results suggest that emotional and feeding responsiveness may be intertwined and that differences in parent's emotional responsiveness may translate into differences in their feeding styles, setting the stage for parents' use of positive vs. negative feeding practices.

Bedtimes, bedtime routines, and children's sleep across the first 2 years of life.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The first objective of this study was to determine whether establishing bedtime routines in the first year of life predicts better sleep outcomes (i.e. longer sleep duration, less nighttime waking, earlier bedtime, shorter sleep latency, fewer sleep problems) across the first 2 years of life. The second objective was to determine whether specific adaptive bedtime activities (e.g. book reading) were associated with sleep outcomes. The third objective was to describe changes in adaptive bedtime activities (hug/kiss caregiver, say goodnight to family) across the first 2 years of life. METHODS: Parents of 468 children from the STRONG Kids 2 birth cohort were surveyed about bedtime and bedtime routines, their child's sleep duration, nighttime waking, sleep latency, and sleep problems at 3, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. RESULTS: Cross-lagged panel models revealed partial evidence for reciprocal associations between bedtime routine consistency and adaptive bedtime activities and better sleep outcomes over time. Specifically, more bedtime routine consistency predicted less nighttime waking and sleep problems, and more bedtime adaptive activities predicted longer sleep duration and fewer sleep problems. DISCUSSION: The findings are discussed from a developmental perspective to highlight how consistency of bedtime routines established as early as 3 months of age may affect sleep outcomes and that the adaptive activities associated with these routines may increase in frequency over the first 2 years of life.

Child attachment behavior as a moderator of the relation between feeding responsiveness and picky eating behavior.

BACKGROUND: Picky eating (PE) behavior is common in early childhood, but persistent PE is associated with unhealthy development and caregiver-child stress during feeding. Identifying modifiable feeding and parent-child relationship factors that impact PE is important for decreasing risks associated with PE. OBJECTIVE: This study examined associations between caregiver Feeding Responsiveness (FR) and child PE behaviors using caregiver reports and observations of family mealtimes. An additional aim examined whether children's attachment behavior moderates this association. METHODS: The analysis sample consisted of 110 families participating in a larger longitudinal study of nutrition and child health. Home observations were conducted when children were 18-24 months (52% females) to assess caregiver-child interactions. Caregivers were, on average, 30.9 years old and mostly White (73.6%). Family mealtimes were videotaped and coded for FR and child PE behaviors. Caregivers completed surveys regarding FR and PE behaviors. RESULTS: Caregiver-reported FR was significantly correlated with observed FR, r (107) = 0.26, p = 0.007; and caregiver-reported PE was associated with observed PE, r (107) = 0.21, p = 0.029. Caregiver-reported FR was inversely related to observed PE, but only when children were characterized by observers to have more positively toned and smooth interactions with caregivers. Using observational data, child attachment significantly moderated the relationship between FR and PE behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: The quality of caregiver-child interactions may impact the degree to which FR is effective in reducing PE. Future longitudinal studies that include more diverse populations, multiple caregivers, and potential mechanisms accounting for these associations are needed.

Does secure base script knowledge mediate associations between observed parental caregiving during childhood and adult romantic relationship quality and health?

Increasingly, attachment representations are being assessed via secure base script knowledge - the degree to which individuals show awareness of the temporal-causal schema that summarizes the basic features of seeking and receiving effective support from caregivers during times of need. Limited research has assessed the links between secure base script knowledge and aspects of adult functioning and the role that secure base script knowledge may play in accounting for associations between early caregiving quality and adulthood functioning. We used follow-up assessments of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development cohort (N = 585) to examine whether secure base script knowledge at age 18 years: (a) is associated with later romantic relationship quality, depressive symptoms, and body mass index (BMI) at age 26 years, and (b) mediates expected associations between the quality of maternal and paternal sensitivity across the first 15 years of life and age-26 outcomes. More access to, and elaborated knowledge of the secure base script predicted less extreme hostility with romantic partners, and better emotional and physical health. Moreover, secure base script knowledge mediated the links between early maternal and paternal sensitivity and both later romantic partner hostility and depressive symptoms, but not BMI.

The Impact of Focused Attention on Emotional Experience: A Functional MRI Investigation.

Emotional well-being depends on the ability to adaptively cope with various emotional challenges. Most studies have investigated the neural mechanisms of emotion regulation strategies deployed relatively later in the timing of processing that leads to full emotional experiences. However, less is known about strategies that are engaged in earlier stages of emotion processing, such as those involving attentional deployment. We investigated the neural mechanisms associated with self-guided Focused Attention (FA) in mitigating subjective negative emotional experiences. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were recorded while participants viewed a series of composite negative and neutral images with distinguishable foreground (FG) and background (BG) areas. Participants were instructed to focus either on the FG or BG components of the images, and then rated their emotional experiences. Behavioral results showed that FA was successful in decreasing emotional ratings for negative images viewed in BG Focus condition. At the neural level, the BG Focus was associated with increased activity in regions typically implicated in top-down executive control (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and lateral parietal cortex) and decreased activity in regions linked to affective processing (amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex). Dissociable brain activity linked to FA also was identified in visual cortices, including between the parahippocampal and fusiform gyri, showing increased versus decreased activity, respectively, during the BG Focus. These findings complement the evidence from prior FA studies with recollected emotional memories as internal stimuli and further demonstrate the effectiveness of self-guided FA in mitigating negative emotional experiences associated with processing of external unpleasant stimuli.

Connections between Friendship Quality, Peer Competence, and Obesity in Early Childhood through Adolescence.

Background: Research indicates that youths with overweight and obesity often face difficulties in peer relationships. The current research examined longitudinal associations between youths' peer competence (i.e., successful interactions with peers), friendship quality (i.e., disclosure, conflict resolution, and companionship with a best friend), and body mass index (BMI) z-score when they were 3 to 15 years of age. Methods: A subsample of 1292 majority White families from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) were included in the analyses. Measured height and weight were used to compute BMI z-scores. Youths reported on their friendship quality starting when they were 8-9 years. Peer competence was assessed with an observation of dyadic peer play when participants were 3 years old, and with maternal reports after that. Associations were examined using autoregressive cross-lagged path models. Results: Bidirectional associations between peer competence and friendship quality were noted when participants were 8-9 and 15 years old. Greater BMI z-scores when youths were 3 and 10-11 years old predicted lower peer competence when they were 15 and 11-12 years old, respectively. Peer competence when youths were 11-12 years old was negatively associated with BMI z-score at 15 years old. Multigroup Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) indicated that significant paths differed between boys and girls. Conclusions: Findings extend previous literature considering peer outcomes and weight by examining associations as early as 3 years old, and indicate the need for early outreach to buffer against detrimental effects on developing peer competencies, especially for girls.

The impact of focused attention on subsequent emotional recollection: A functional MRI investigation.

In his seminal works, Endel Tulving argued that functionally distinct memory systems give rise to subjective experiences of remembering and knowing (i.e., recollection- vs. familiarity-based memory, respectively). Evidence shows that emotion specifically enhances recollection, and this effect is subserved by a synergistic mechanism involving the amygdala (AMY) and hippocampus (HC). In extreme circumstances, however, uncontrolled recollection of highly distressing memories may lead to symptoms of affective disorders. Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that can diminish such detrimental effects. Here, we investigated the effects of Focused Attention (FA) on emotional recollection. FA is an emotion regulation strategy that has been proven quite effective in reducing the impact of emotional responses associated with the recollection of distressing autobiographical memories, but its impact during emotional memory encoding is not known. Functional MRI and eye-tracking data were recorded while participants viewed a series of composite negative and neutral images with distinguishable foreground (FG) and background (BG) areas. Participants were instructed to focus either on the FG or BG content of the images and to rate their emotional responses. About 4 days later, participants' memory was assessed using the R/K procedure, to indicate whether they Recollected specific contextual details about the encoded images or the images were just familiar to them - i.e., participants only Knew that they saw the pictures without being able to remember specific contextual details. First, results revealed that FA was successful in decreasing memory for emotional pictures viewed in BG Focus condition, and this effect was driven by recollection-based retrieval. Second, the BG Focus condition was associated with decreased activity in the AMY, HC, and anterior parahippocampal gyrus for subsequently recollected emotional items. Moreover, correlation analyses also showed that reduced activity in these regions predicted greater reduction in emotional recollection following FA. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of FA in mitigating emotional experiences and emotional recollection associated with unpleasant emotional events.

Household Chaos, Maternal Emotional Responsiveness, and Child Eating Behavior: A Moderation Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To address calls for a resilience-informed approach to understand the cause and prevention of childhood obesity, the current study aims to investigate the independent and interactive associations between household chaos, maternal emotional responsiveness, and eating behavior in early childhood. METHOD: A sample of (n = 108) families of 18- to 24-month-olds completed self-report surveys and consented to home visits as part of the larger STRONG Kids 2 (N = 468) study. Videotapes of family mealtimes were collected during home visits and coded for observed maternal emotional responsiveness. Mothers completed questionnaires assessing maternal emotional responsiveness, household chaos, and child eating behaviors. Moderation analyses assessed independent and interactive effects of chaos and emotional responsiveness on child appetite self-regulation. RESULTS: In moderation analyses controlling for demographic covariates, higher levels of chaos were associated with more emotional overeating and with more food responsiveness, but only among children of mothers observed engaging in low levels of responsiveness at mealtimes. There was no association between chaos and eating behavior among children of mothers observed engaging in high levels of emotional responsiveness at mealtimes. There was also no independent or interactive association between chaos and child eating behaviors characterized by food avoidance. CONCLUSION: Preliminary evidence suggests that maternal emotional responsiveness at mealtimes may attenuate the deleterious effects of chaos on child overeating and food responsiveness. Future research should prioritize using longitudinal designs, developing observational assessments of early childhood eating behaviors, and understanding these processes among families exposed to greater socioeconomic adversity.

The STRONG Kids 2 Birth Cohort Study: A Cell-to-Society Approach to Dietary Habits and Weight Trajectories across the First 5 Years of Life.

BACKGROUND: Dietary habits formed during the first 5 y of life portend lifelong eating patterns. OBJECTIVE: The Synergistic Theory Research Obesity and Nutrition Group (STRONG) Kids 2 birth cohort study aimed to examine multilevel predictors of weight trajectories and dietary habits including individual biology, child socioemotional and behavioral characteristics, family environment, and child care environment over the first 5 y of life. This report describes recruitment strategies, an overview of survey measures, and basic descriptive statistics of the cohort. METHODS: The cohort includes 468 mothers and their offspring. A brief survey was completed at a 1-wk home visit including child's birth weight, intent to breastfeed, collection of an infant stool sample, and additional contact information should the family move. Mothers completed surveys including diet, child temperament, family environment, and child care when their child was 6 wk, 3, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 60 mo of age. Height and weight of the mother and child were collected at each visit. Stool samples of the child were collected at each visit as well as saliva at 1 visit. RESULTS: Close to half of the mothers were either overweight (24.2%) or obese (25.2%) prepregnancy. At 6 wk of age, 32.9% of the children were overweight and 31.4% were obese based on direct measurement. CONCLUSIONS: The STRONG Kids 2 research team has adopted a socioecological model that accounts for multiple influences on children's health including biological, child social and behavioral, family household organization, and community factors. The study is limited by a relatively educated and nondiverse sample. However, variations in maternal and child weight may inform future prevention programs and policy aimed at improving the diet and health of children under the age of 5 y.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03341858.

Associations between father availability, mealtime distractions and routines, and maternal feeding responsiveness: An observational study.

Responsive feeding and frequency of family mealtimes are related to healthier eating behaviors and weight outcomes in children and adolescents. Distractions at mealtimes are related to greater intake of unhealthy food and a less positive mealtime emotional climate. However, there is little understanding of the effects of routines and father availability on distractions at family meals, and there is limited research investigating the effects of distractions among all family members on maternal feeding practices in toddlerhood. This study aims to characterize distractions at family mealtimes and examine associations between father availability, distractions, and observed responsive feeding. Descriptive analyses, nonlinear mixed models, and path analyses were conducted using observational (home-based family mealtimes) and self-report data collected from a subsample of families (n = 109) of 18- to 24-month-old children in the larger STRONG Kids 2 Study (N = 468). Between fathers, mothers, and children, families spent almost half of the mealtime distracted. Fathers and mothers engaged in about equal amounts of distractions, and children engaged in more technology-related distractions than parents. Fathers' absence at the mealtime was associated with more child distractions and less maternal feeding responsiveness. Lower paternal total distractions, maternal non-technology-object-related distractions, and higher household income were significantly associated with more observed maternal feeding responsiveness. Future research should investigate how father availability and family mealtime distractions may be associated directly and indirectly with children's eating behaviors and weight outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal factor analysis of the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire among parents of preschool-aged children.

INTRODUCTION: The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) assesses 12 specific parent feeding practices (Musher-Eizenman & Holub, 2007). However, the original 12-factor structure may not be consistent across age groups, and no studies have yet evaluated the factor structure of the CFPQ over time. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to evaluate the model fit of the original and alternative CFPQ factor structures at two time points in early childhood. METHOD: Mothers (n = 260) of preschoolers completed validated surveys assessing parent feeding practices and child eating behaviors when children were on average 37 months of age at Time 1 (T1), and 57 months of age at Time 2 (T2). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) procedures were used to evaluate the original CFPQ factor structure, and to identify and evaluate modified factor structures at both time points. RESULTS: The original 12-factor CFPQ model did not adequately fit the data at T1 or T2. EFA identified a 7-factor model at T1, and a 5-factor model at T2. Bivariate correlations provided preliminary evidence for the validity of the modified scales. DISCUSSION: Overall, these findings suggest that parent feeding measures should the developmental significance of specific feeding practices, and/or that parents' reliance on certain feeding practices may shift as children age. Thus, a developmental framework to conceptualize how feeding changes during early childhood is sorely needed.