Protooncogene Ski cooperates with the chromatin-remodeling factor Satb2 in specifying callosal neurons.

First insights into the molecular programs orchestrating the progression from neural stem cells to cortical projection neurons are emerging. Loss of the transcriptional regulator Ski has been linked to the human 1p36 deletion syndrome, which includes central nervous system defects. Here, we report critical roles for Ski in the maintenance of the neural stem cell pool and the specification of callosal neurons. Ski-deficient callosal neurons lose their identity and ectopically express the transcription factor Ctip2. The misspecified callosal neurons largely fail to form the corpus callosum and instead redirect their axons toward subcortical targets. We identify the chromatin-remodeling factor Satb2 as a partner of Ski, and show that both proteins are required for transcriptional repression of Ctip2 in callosal neurons. We propose a model in which Satb2 recruits Ski to the Ctip2 locus, and Ski attracts histone deacetylases, thereby enabling the formation of a functional nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase repressor complex. Our findings establish a central role for Ski-Satb2 interactions in regulating transcriptional mechanisms of callosal neuron specification.

Development of axon-target specificity of ponto-cerebellar afferents.

The function of neuronal networks relies on selective assembly of synaptic connections during development. We examined how synaptic specificity emerges in the pontocerebellar projection. Analysis of axon-target interactions with correlated light-electron microscopy revealed that developing pontine mossy fibers elaborate extensive cell-cell contacts and synaptic connections with Purkinje cells, an inappropriate target. Subsequently, mossy fiber-Purkinje cell connections are eliminated resulting in granule cell-specific mossy fiber connectivity as observed in mature cerebellar circuits. Formation of mossy fiber-Purkinje cell contacts is negatively regulated by Purkinje cell-derived BMP4. BMP4 limits mossy fiber growth in vitro and Purkinje cell-specific ablation of BMP4 in mice results in exuberant mossy fiber-Purkinje cell interactions. These findings demonstrate that synaptic specificity in the pontocerebellar projection is achieved through a stepwise mechanism that entails transient innervation of Purkinje cells, followed by synapse elimination. Moreover, this work establishes BMP4 as a retrograde signal that regulates the axon-target interactions during development.

Induction of early Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation by thyroid hormone requires RORα.

BACKGROUND: The active form (T3) of thyroid hormone (TH) controls critical aspects of cerebellar development, such as migration of postmitotic neurons and terminal dendritic differentiation of Purkinje cells. The effects of T3 on early dendritic differentiation are poorly understood. RESULTS: In this study, we have analyzed the influence of T3 on the progression of the early steps of Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation in postnatal day 0 organotypic cerebellar cultures. These steps include, successively, regression of immature neuritic processes, a stellate cell stage, and the extension of several long and mature perisomatic protrusions before the growth of the ultimate dendritic tree. We also studied the involvement of RORalpha, a nuclear receptor controlling early Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation. We show that T3 treatment leads to an accelerated progression of the early steps of dendritic differentiation in culture, together with an increased expression of RORalpha (mRNA and protein) in both Purkinje cells and interneurons. Finally, we show that T3 failed to promote early dendritic differentiation in staggerer RORalpha-deficient Purkinje cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that T3 action on the early Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation process is mediated by RORalpha.

Evidence of a role for lactadherin in Alzheimer's disease.

Lactadherin is a secreted extracellular matrix protein expressed in phagocytes and contributes to the removal of apoptotic cells. We examined lactadherin expression in brain sections of patients with or without Alzheimer's disease and studied its role in the phagocytosis of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta). Cells involved in Alzheimer's disease, including vascular smooth muscle cells, astrocytes, and microglia, showed a time-related increase in lactadherin production in culture. Quantitative analysis of the level of lactadherin showed a 35% reduction in lactadherin mRNA expression in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (n = 52) compared with age-matched controls (n = 58; P = 0.003). Interestingly, lactadherin protein was detected in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease and controls, with low expression in areas rich in senile plaques and marked expression in areas without Abeta deposition. Using surface plasmon resonance, we observed a direct protein-protein interaction between recombinant lactadherin and Abeta 1-42 peptide in vitro. Lactadherin deficiency or its neutralization using specific antibodies significantly prevented Abeta 1-42 phagocytosis by murine and human macrophages. In conclusion, lactadherin plays an important role in the phagocytosis of Abeta 1-42 peptide, and its expression is reduced in Alzheimer's disease. Alterations in lactadherin production/function may contribute to the initiation and/or progression of Alzheimer's disease.

RORalpha, a pivotal nuclear receptor for Purkinje neuron survival and differentiation: from development to ageing.

RORalpha (Retinoid-related Orphan Receptor) is a transcription factor belonging to the superfamily of nuclear receptors. The spontaneous staggerer (sg) mutation, which consists of a deletion in the Rora gene, has been shown to cause the loss of function of the RORalpha protein. The total loss of RORalpha expression leads to cerebellar developmental defects, particularly to a dramatic decreased survival of Purkinje cells and an early block in the differentiation process. This review focuses on recent studies which position RORalpha as a pivotal factor controlling Purkinje cell survival and differentiation, from development to ageing.

Human retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor alpha1 overexpression protects neurones against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis.

Retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor alpha (RORalpha) is a transcription factor belonging to the superfamily of nuclear receptors. Disruption of the Rora gene in the mouse results in a defect in the development of Purkinje cells leading to a cerebellar atrophy, which suggests a neuroprotective role for RORalpha. To test this hypothesis, the survival rate of lentiviral-mediated human RORalpha1-overexpressing neurones has been evaluated in response to different stressors disturbing the redox homeostasis, such as beta-amyloid peptide, c(2)-ceramide and H(2)O(2). We show that overexpression of human RORalpha1 provides neuroprotection by increasing the expression of the antioxidant proteins glutathione peroxidase 1 and peroxiredoxin 6, leading to a reduction in the accumulation of stress-induced reactive oxygen species. We further demonstrate that the neuroprotective effect of RORalpha is predominantly mediated by glutathione peroxidase 1 and peroxiredoxin 6. These results suggest a new role for RORalpha in the control of the neuronal oxidative stress and thus represents a new transcription factor of interest in the regulation of reactive oxygen species-induced neurodegenerative processes during ageing.

Retinoid-related orphan receptor alpha controls the early steps of Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation.

Dendritic differentiation involves both regressive and growth events. The mechanisms controlling the regressive events are poorly understood. This study is aimed at determining the role of the nuclear receptor retinoid-related orphan receptor alpha (RORalpha) in Purkinje cell (PC) dendritic differentiation in organotypic cultures. As observed in vivo, in these cultures, fusiform PCs with embryonic bipolar shape undergo regression before the outgrowth of the ultimate dendritic tree. We show that lentiviral-mediated hRORalpha1 overexpression in fusiform PCs leads to a cell-autonomous accelerated progression of dendritic differentiation. In addition, RORalpha is necessary for the PC regressive events: whereas staggerer RORalpha-deficient PCs remain in the embryonic fusiform stage, replacement of hRORalpha1 restores normal dendritogenesis. These results demonstrate that RORalpha expression in fusiform PCs is crucial for the dendritic regression and progression of the following step of extension of dendritic processes. However, it does not seem to participate to the last stage of dendritic growth. This study identifies RORalpha as a nuclear receptor crucial for the control of dendritic remodeling during development.

The "CholesteROR" protective pathway in the vascular system.

Retinoic acid receptor-related Orphan Receptor alpha (RORalpha) is a member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. RORalpha has long been considered as a constitutive activator of transcription in the absence of exogenous ligand; however, cholesterol has recently been identified as a natural ligand of RORalpha. The spontaneous staggerer (sg/sg) mutation is a deletion in the Rora gene that prevents the translation of the ligand-binding domain (LBD), leading to the loss of RORalpha activity. The homozygous Rora(sg/sg) mutant mouse, of which the most obvious phenotype is ataxia associated with cerebellar degeneration, also displays a variety of other phenotypes, including several vascular ones; in particular, dysfunction of smooth muscle cells and enhanced susceptibility to atherosclerosis. Moreover, RORalpha appears to participate in the regulation of plasma cholesterol levels, and has been shown to positively regulate apolipoprotein (apo)A-I and apoC-III gene expression. Yet its activity is regulated by cholesterol itself, making RORalpha an intracellular cholesterol target.