ABSTRACT
Lactate is increasingly described as an energy substrate of the brain. Beside this still debated metabolic role, lactate may have other effects on brain cells. Here, we describe lactate as a neuromodulator, able to influence the activity of cortical neurons. Neuronal excitability of mouse primary neurons was monitored by calcium imaging. When applied in conjunction with glucose, lactate induced a decrease in the spontaneous calcium spiking frequency of neurons. The effect was reversible and concentration dependent (IC50 â¼4.2 mM). To test whether lactate effects are dependent on energy metabolism, we applied the closely related substrate pyruvate (5 mM) or switched to different glucose concentrations (0.5 or 10 mM). None of these conditions reproduced the effect of lactate. Recently, a Gi protein-coupled receptor for lactate called HCA1 has been introduced. To test if this receptor is implicated in the observed lactate sensitivity, we incubated cells with pertussis toxin (PTX) an inhibitor of Gi-protein. PTX prevented the decrease of neuronal activity by L-lactate. Moreover 3,5-dyhydroxybenzoic acid, a specific agonist of the HCA1 receptor, mimicked the action of lactate. This study indicates that lactate operates a negative feedback on neuronal activity by a receptor-mediated mechanism, independent from its intracellular metabolism.
Subject(s)
Cerebral Cortex/metabolism , Lactates/metabolism , Neurons/physiology , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Animals , Calcium/metabolism , Calcium Signaling , Cerebral Cortex/drug effects , Energy Metabolism , Glucose/metabolism , Glucose/pharmacology , Hydrogen-Ion Concentration , Intracellular Space/metabolism , Lactates/pharmacology , Mice , Neurons/drug effects , Neurotransmitter Agents/metabolism , Neurotransmitter Agents/pharmacology , Signal Transduction/drug effects , StereoisomerismABSTRACT
The P2X(7) receptor (P2X(7)R) is an ATP-gated cation channel whose biophysical properties remain to be unravelled unequivocally. Its activity is modulated by divalent cations and organic messengers such as arachidonic acid (AA). In this study, we analysed the differential modulation of magnesium (Mg(2+)) and AA on P2X(7)R by measuring whole-cell currents and intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) and Na(+) ([Na(+)](i)) dynamics in HEK293 cells stably expressing full-length P2X(7)R and in cells endowed with the P2X(7)R variant lacking the entire C-terminus tail (trP2X(7)R), which is thought to control the pore activation. AA induced a robust potentiation of the P2X(7)R- and trP2X(7)R-mediated [Ca(2+)](i) rise but did not affect the ionic currents in both conditions. Extracellular Mg(2+) reduced the P2X7R- and trP2X(7)R-mediated [Ca(2+)](i) rise in a dose-dependent manner through a competitive mechanism. The modulation of the magnitude of the P2X(7)R-mediated ionic current and [Na(+)](i) rise were strongly dependent on Mg(2+) concentration but occurred in a non-competitive manner. In contrast, in cells expressing the trP2X(7)R, the small ionic currents and [Na(+)](i) signals were totally insensitive to Mg(2+). Collectively, these results support the tenet of a functional structure of P2X(7)R possessing at least two distinct conductive pathways one for Ca(2+) and another for monovalent ions, with the latter which depends on the presence of the receptor C-terminus.
Subject(s)
Neural Conduction/physiology , Receptors, Purinergic P2/physiology , Signal Transduction/physiology , Adenosine Triphosphate/analogs & derivatives , Adenosine Triphosphate/pharmacology , Adenosine Triphosphate/physiology , Animals , Arachidonic Acid/pharmacology , Calcium Signaling/drug effects , Cell Line , Cytophotometry , Electrophysiology , Humans , Magnesium/pharmacology , Neural Conduction/drug effects , Patch-Clamp Techniques , Rats , Receptors, Purinergic P2/drug effects , Receptors, Purinergic P2X7 , Recombinant Proteins , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Sodium Channels/drug effects , Sodium Channels/physiology , TransfectionABSTRACT
Astrocytes are responsible for the majority of the clearance of extracellular glutamate released during neuronal activity. dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (TBOA) is extensively used as inhibitor of glutamate transport activity, but suffers from relatively low affinity for the transporter. Here, we characterized the effects of (2S, 3S)-3-[3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoylamino]benzyloxy]aspartate (TFB-TBOA), a recently developed inhibitor of the glutamate transporter on mouse cortical astrocytes in primary culture. The glial Na(+)-glutamate transport system is very efficient and its activation by glutamate causes rapid intracellular Na(+) concentration (Na(+)(i)) changes that enable real time monitoring of transporter activity. Na(+)(i) was monitored by fluorescence microscopy in single astrocytes using the fluorescent Na(+)-sensitive probe sodium-binding benzofuran isophtalate. When applied alone, TFB-TBOA, at a concentration of 1 microM, caused small alterations of Na(+)(i). TFB-TBOA inhibited the Na(+)(i) response evoked by 200 microM glutamate in a concentration-dependent manner with IC(50) value of 43+/-9 nM, as measured on the amplitude of the Na(+)(i) response. The maximum inhibition of glutamate-evoked Na(+)(i) increase by TFB-TBOA was >80%, but was only partly reversible. The residual response persisted in the presence of the AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist CNQX. TFB-TBOA also efficiently inhibited Na(+)(i) elevations caused by the application of d-aspartate, a transporter substrate that does not activate non-NMDA ionotropic receptors. TFB-TBOA was found not to influence the membrane properties of cultured cortical neurons recorded in whole-cell patch clamp. Thus, TFB-TBOA, with its high potency and its apparent lack of neuronal effects, appears to be one of the most useful pharmacological tools available so far for studying glial glutamate transporters.
Subject(s)
Aspartic Acid/analogs & derivatives , Astrocytes/drug effects , Astrocytes/metabolism , Central Nervous System Agents/pharmacology , Glutamic Acid/metabolism , Sodium/metabolism , 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione/pharmacology , Animals , Aspartic Acid/administration & dosage , Aspartic Acid/pharmacology , Cells, Cultured , Central Nervous System Agents/administration & dosage , Cerebral Cortex/drug effects , Cerebral Cortex/metabolism , D-Aspartic Acid/metabolism , Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists/pharmacology , Glutamate Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Glutamate Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism , Intracellular Space/drug effects , Intracellular Space/metabolism , Membrane Potentials/drug effects , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Neurons/drug effects , Neurons/physiology , Receptors, Kainic Acid/antagonists & inhibitors , Receptors, Kainic Acid/metabolism , Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/metabolismABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The ablative potential and toxicity of gemcitabine, administered intravesically in low stage and grade superficial transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), were evaluated. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with a history of recurrent Ta-T1, GI-G2 bladder TCC were considered eligible for the study. Gemcitabine was administered intravesically at 40 mg/mL concentration (2000 mg in 50 ml saline) in one weekly instillation for 4 consecutive weeks. Fifteen days after the last instillation, patients were submitted to transurethral resection (TUR). RESULTS: Twenty-six patients were evaluable for toxicity, and 20 were evaluable for response, 6 patients being excluded due to toxicity. A complete response was achieved by 10 out of 20 patients (50%), whereas no response was documented in the remainder. Toxicity leading to treatment interruption was grade 3 in 1 patient and grade 2 in 5 patients. CONCLUSION: Intravesical gemcitabine administered at 40 mg/mL showed the capability of ablating small volume, superficial TCC in 50% of the population under study, with acceptable tolerability.
