Mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms across four years postpartum: An examination of between- and bidirectional within-person relations.

BACKGROUND: Both mothers and fathers are at risk for experiencing postpartum depressive symptoms shortly after the birth of a child. Previous studies suggest mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms to be interrelated. This study examined bidirectional relations between mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms across four years postpartum. METHODS: Longitudinal data for this study were collected across five waves from 485 mothers and 359 fathers of infants when infants were on average 6 months-old until children were 54 months-old (1-year lags). Mothers and fathers reported on their depressive symptoms using the Center for the Epidemiological Studies Short Depression Scale (CES-D 10). A random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RICLPM) was specified to examine the bidirectional relations between mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms over time. RESULTS: At the between-person level, mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms were positively associated. At the within-person level, unique carry-over effects were found for mothers and fathers in that when reporting higher depressive symptoms than their trait levels, they were more likely to report higher depressive symptoms one year later. Moreover, intermittent cross-lagged effects were observed from mothers' depressive symptoms to fathers' depressive symptoms during toddlerhood. LIMITATIONS: The sample was not racially or structurally diverse thereby limiting the generalizations of the findings. CONCLUSIONS: After the birth of a child, mothers and fathers are at risk for experiencing chronic depressive symptoms which can have implications for individual, couple and child health. Mothers' depressive symptoms are related to fathers' depressive symptoms over time.

"More is better" or "better near the middle"? A U.S.-based individual participant data meta-analysis of socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms.

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a widely researched construct in developmental science, yet less is known concerning relations between SES and adaptive behavior. Specifically, is the relation linear, with higher SES associated with better outcomes, or does the direction of association change at different levels of SES? Our aim was to examine linear ("more is better") and quadratic ("better near the middle") associations between components of SES (i.e., income, years of education, occupational status/prestige) and depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale), and to explore moderation by developmental period (adolescence, young, middle, and older adulthood), gender/sex (female, male), and race/ethnicity (Asian American, Black, Latinx, multiracial, Native American, White). We hypothesized that there would be more support for a model containing quadratic associations. We conducted a two-stage meta-analytic structural equation model of 60 data sets (27,242 correlations, 498,179 participants) within the United States, accounting for dependencies between correlations, which were identified via the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research and handled using a two-step approach. Income was quadratically associated with depressive symptoms, but the quadratic model did not explain more variance in depressive symptoms than the linear model. Developmental period and race/ethnicity moderated the associations: Income was quadratically associated with depressive symptoms among middle-aged adults, and years of education were quadratically associated with depressive symptoms among White samples. Our findings suggest that researchers and clinical practitioners should consider the elevated risk of depressive symptoms for individuals from low and high-income backgrounds in the United States. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The HOME-21: A revised measure of the home environment for the 21st century tested in two independent samples.

For decades, the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) has been the most widely used measure of children's home environments. This report provides a revised version of the HOME-Short Form, the HOME-21, reflecting historical changes in family composition and caregiver roles, norms about the acceptability of different forms of discipline, and children's digital environments. Using data from two samples of parents of children ages 0-17 (Fast Track [FT], N = 553, age = 33.8, 49.2% female, 48.1% Black, 51.9% White/other; Great Smoky Mountains Study [GSMS], N = 722, age = 37.2, 54.7% female, 67.6% White, 6.6% Black, 25.8% American Indian), we assess the utility of the HOME-21 with descriptive statistics and correlations with a range of demographic, family context, parenting, and child adjustment measures. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with obtaining a high school diploma or equivalency diploma (in GSMS only), having 4 or more years of college, and household income. HOME-21 was also correlated with having a more favorable family context indexed by fewer stressful life events (in FT only), less household food insecurity, lower household chaos, and more perceived social support. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with better parenting in the form of parental acceptance, positive parenting, warm involvement, appropriate and consistent discipline, verbal discussion, less physical aggression, and greater parental self-efficacy. Higher HOME-21 scores were correlated with better child adjustment in terms of fewer emotional and conduct problems, less hyperactivity, and more prosocial behavior. The HOME-21 has utility for use in future studies of children's home environments in the 21st century. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms: An individual-participant data meta-analysis on range restriction and measurement in the United States.

INTRODUCTION: The association between socioeconomic status (SES) and depressive symptoms is well documented, yet less attention has been paid to the methodological factors contributing to between-study variability. We examined the moderating role of range restriction and the depressive-symptom measurement instrument used in estimating the correlation between components of SES and depressive symptoms. METHODS: We conducted an individual participant data meta-analysis of nationally-representative, public-access datasets in the United States. We identified 123 individual datasets with a total of 1,655,991 participants (56.8 % female, mean age = 40.33). RESULTS: The presence of range restriction was associated with larger correlations between income and depressive symptoms and with smaller correlations between years of education and depressive symptoms. The measurement instrument of depressive symptoms moderated the association for income, years of education, and occupational status/prestige. The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale consistently produced larger correlations. Higher measurement reliability was also associated with larger correlations. LIMITATIONS: This study was not a comprehensive review of all measurement instruments of depressive symptoms, focused on datasets from the United States, and did not examine the moderating role of sample characteristics. DISCUSSION: Methodological characteristics, including range restriction of SES and instrument of depressive symptoms, meaningfully influence the observed magnitude of association between SES and depressive symptoms. Clinicians and researchers designing future studies should consider which instrument of depressive symptoms is suitable for their purpose and population.

A Systematic Overview of Meta-Analyses on Socioeconomic Status, Cognitive Ability, and Achievement: The Need to Focus on Specific Pathways.

Meta-analyses on the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and performance on measures of cognitive ability and achievement arrive at the same general conclusion of a small to medium association. Advancements in methods make possible for meta-analyses to examine specific pathways linking SES to cognitive ability and achievement, as well as the moderators of these pathways. In this study, we conducted a systematic overview of meta-analyses on SES to address three research questions: 1) what is the direction and overall strength of association between SES and performance on measures of cognitive ability and achievement, and how precise are the effect sizes reported? 2) to what extent have meta-analyses examined moderation by components of SES, age, sex, and race/ethnicity? and 3) to what extent have meta-analyses examined mechanisms linking SES to cognitive ability and achievement? We conducted a systematic search using online archives (i.e., PsycINFO, ERIC, PubMed, Sociological Abstracts, and Web of Science), searching issues in Psychological Bulletin and Review of Educational Research, and examining references and citations. We identified 14 meta-analyses published between 1982 and 2019. These meta-analyses consistently reported positive associations of small to medium magnitude, indicating that SES is a meaningful contributor to the development of cognitive ability and achievement. Fewer meta-analyses reported evidence of moderation by age, sex, and race/ethnicity. None of the meta-analyses directly examined mechanisms, but provided evidence of possible mechanisms for future research. We suggest that meta-analyses can increase their contribution to future research, interventions, and policy by narrowing their focus on specific pathways.

The Role of Parents in Reducing Academic, Health, and Behavioral Problems for Native American, African American, and Latinx Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to determine how parental modeling of thoughtful behavior and the home physical environment may reduce the number of developmental problems exhibited by Native American, African American, and Latinx adolescents. METHOD: Demographic and home environmental data were collected from 54 Native American, 131 African American, and 159 Latinx families living in 4 states as part of a home visit. Parents and adolescents were administered surveys that captured adolescent health, social skills, problem behavior, self-efficacy beliefs, vocabulary attainment, and school grades. Scores from the surveys were combined to construct both an adolescent problems index and a household risk index. For each of the 3 racial/ethnic groups examined, the adolescent problems index was regressed on parental modeling and encouragement of mature behavior, the home physical environment, and the household risk index. RESULTS: Modeling and encouragement of mature behavior was a significant bivariate predictor of overall problems in all 3 groups of adolescents-albeit the overall regression model was nonsignificant for Native Americans. By contrast, the other 2 predictors were nonsignificant in regression models for all 3 groups. CONCLUSION: Native American, African American, and Latinx adolescents often face a multitude of risks, including poverty and discrimination. As a consequence, adolescents from these 3 racial/ethnic groups frequently display problems pertaining to health, competence, and adaptive behavior. The results from this study suggest that adolescents from such demographic groups are less likely to manifest developmental problems if their parents model mature behavior and encourage the adolescent to act in thoughtful ways.

Child Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

BACKGROUND: The United Nations (UN) created the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) to monitor progress toward achieving goals of the World Declaration on the Survival, Protection, and Development of Children and its plan of action. The MICS is nationally representative and internationally comparable. METHODS: In this study, we use MICS data from 51 low- and middle-income countries on 159 959 children between 36 and 59 months of age. To index national development, we used the 2013 UN Human Development Index (HDI), which provides data on country-level life expectancy, education, and income. To index child development, we used the Early Childhood Development Index (ECDI), which assesses literacy and numeracy, socioemotional development, physical health, and approaches to learning. RESULTS: Children's literacy and numeracy, socioemotional development, and approaches to learning all increase linearly as national development on the HDI (especially education) increases. Overall, the HDI revealed a positive association (r = 0.40) with the ECDI: the HDI explained 16% of variance in children's ECDI scores and was the most influential predictor of ECDI scores examined. HDI-ECDI relations are robust, even when we control for multiple demographic aspects of children (age, sex), mothers (age, education), and households (size variables) as covariates. No family demographic variable was a stronger predictor of child development than national development. CONCLUSIONS: To promote child development, low- and middle-income countries need to develop and implement policies that ensure national health and wealth and, particularly, the educational achievements of children's caregivers. These findings are faithful to the World Summit for Children and inform the UN Sustainable Development Goals, which drive the international development agenda through 2030.

Security and closeness with mothers and fathers in the transition to adolescence: Differences by temperament.

Relations between parental (mother and father) sensitivity and opportunity for productive activity during early and middle childhood and fifth graders' perceptions of security and closeness to each parent were examined for 771 children. In addition, differential susceptibility to parental sensitivity and opportunity for productive activity was examined for children with difficult temperaments. Perceived security with respect to both mothers and fathers was related to both parental sensitivity and opportunity for productive activity. In the case of opportunity for productive activity, relations were stronger for children with difficult temperaments. By contrast, productive activity was the only significant predictor of perceived closeness; and it was significant only for mothers. However, the productive activity by child temperament interaction was significant for both mothers and fathers. Overall, the findings are consistent with the idea that parent-child relationships often undergo transformations during the transition to adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Climbing Mountains and Avoiding Slippery Slopes: Challenges in Constructing Measures of Children's Environments.

ABSTRACT: Constructing valid, useful measures of children's environments is critical for advancing knowledge about relations between environmental conditions and child well-being. The approach to constructing useful measures of children's environments varies somewhat from the approach needed to construct valid, useful measures of children's personal characteristics. The commentary includes a review of literature on the distinction between reflective indicators and causal/formative indicators because it applies to the construction of measures of human environments. It also offers suggestions on how to select indicators for inclusion in measures of the environment and how to select assessments of child outcomes for validating measures of children's environments.

Predictors of Contemporary under-5 Child Mortality in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Machine Learning Approach.

Child Mortality (CM) is a worldwide concern, annually affecting as many as 6.81% children in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). We used data of the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey (MICS) (N = 275,160) from 27 LMIC and a machine-learning approach to rank 37 distal causes of CM and identify the top 10 causes in terms of predictive potency. Based on the top 10 causes, we identified households with improved conditions. We retrospectively validated the results by investigating the association between variations of CM and variations of the percentage of households with improved conditions at country-level, between the 2005-2007 and the 2013-2017 administrations of the MICS. A unique contribution of our approach is to identify lesser-known distal causes which likely account for better-known proximal causes: notably, the identified distal causes and preventable and treatable through social, educational, and physical interventions. We demonstrate how machine learning can be used to obtain operational information from big dataset to guide interventions and policy makers.

Men's and women's views on acceptability of husband-to-wife violence and use of corporal punishment with children in 21 low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring violence against women and children, and understanding risk factors and consequences of such violence, are key parts of the action plan for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. OBJECTIVE: We examined how men's and women's views about the acceptability of husband-to-wife violence are related within households and how views about the acceptability of husband-to-wife violence are related to beliefs in the necessity of using corporal punishment to rear children and to reported use of corporal punishment with children. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: We used nationally representative samples of men and women in 37,641 households in 21 low- and middle-income countries that participated in UNICEF's Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. METHODS: We conducted a series of logistic regression models, controlling for clustering within country, with outcomes of whether participants believe corporal punishment is necessary in childrearing, and whether a child in their household experienced corporal punishment in the last month. RESULTS: In 46 % of households, men, women, or both men and women believed husbands are justified in hitting their wives. Children in households in which both men and women believe husbands are justified in hitting their wives had 1.83 times the odds of experiencing corporal punishment as children in households in which neither men nor women believe husbands are justified in hitting their wives (95 % CI: 1.12, 2.97). CONCLUSIONS: Working toward the realization of SDG 5 and SDG 16 involving prevention of violence against women and children, respectively, should be complementary undertakings.

An SEM Assessment of the Internal Structure and Predictive Validity of the Abbreviated Early Adolescent HOME Inventory.

The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory is designed to assess the quality and quantity of support, stimulation, and structure provided to children in the home environment. HOME has been widely used for research and applied purposes. We focused on an abbreviated version of the Early Adolescent HOME (EA-HOME-A) that was administered to 15-year-old adolescents and their parents (N = 958) as part of the NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Our study had two objectives. First, we hypothesized and tested a bifactor model that specified a general factor in support of the use of the HOME total score and group factors for subsets of items in support of the content domain scores. Second, we applied structural equation modeling to relate the EA-HOME-A factors to outcome factors assessing maladaptive behaviors, autonomy, self-control, and cognitive-academic performance. The results supported the construct validity of the EA-HOME-A with respect to its internal structure as well as its correlates.

Home life and health among Native American, African American, and Latino adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Research provides limited detail on how aspects of home life influence basic health status for ethnic/racial minority adolescents. This study examined 2 aspects of the home environment as they relate to 2 markers of health status for Native American, African American, and Latino adolescents. The study addressed the hypothesis that family companionship and investment is associated with adolescent health in all 3 groups. METHOD: Data collectors made visits to the homes of 53 Native American, 132 African American, and 155 Latino families with an adolescent living in residence. They administered the HOME Inventory along with components of the Child Health and Illness Profile and the American Community Survey to parents and adolescents. RESULTS: Significant correlations were observed between the Companionship and Investment domain of LA-HOME and the 2 markers of health for all 3 racial/ethnic groups. Very few significant correlations were observed for the other LA-HOME domain (Physical Environment). When health outcomes were regressed on the 2 home environment factors and gender, Companionship and Investment was a significant predictor in 4 of the 6 models run, with near significant differences in a 5th. CONCLUSIONS: In households where there was a high level of connectedness between adolescents and other family members, adolescents showed more endurance and had fewer health problems. Because adolescence is a period when children tend to spend less time with other family members and are prone to engage in risky behavior, implementing programs that promote parent-adolescent communication and productive time together would seem helpful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Home Environment and Self-Efficacy Beliefs among Native American, African American, and Latino Adolescents.

Context helps determine what individuals experience in the settings they inhabit. Context also helps determine the likelihood that those experiences will promote adaptive development. Theory suggests likely interplay between various aspects of home context and development of ideas about self that influence patterns of development for children. This study addressed relations between two aspects of home life (companionship and investment, modeling and encouragement) and three types of self-efficacy beliefs (enlisting social resources, independent learning, self-regulatory behavior) considered important for long-term adaptive functioning. The study focused on three groups of minority adolescents (Native American, African American, Latino). Relations were examined using regression models that also included four aspects of household risk that often hinder the development of self-efficacy. Although findings varied somewhat across the three groups, significant relations emerged between the two domains of home life examined and self-efficacy beliefs in all three groups, even controlling for overall household risk. Companionship and investment appeared particularly relevant for African American adolescents, while modeling and encouragement appeared particularly relevant for Native American adolescents. Both were relevant for Latino adolescents.

El contexto ayuda a determinar lo que las personas viven en los entornos que habitan. El contexto también ayuda a determinar la probabilidad de que esas experiencias promuevan el desarrollo adaptativo. La teoría sugiere una probable interacción entre varios aspectos del contexto hogareño y el desarrollo de ideas acerca del yo que influyen en los patrones de desarrollo de los niños. Este estudio abordó las relaciones entre dos aspectos de la vida hogareña (compañerismo e inversión, modelado y fomento) y tres tipos de creencias de autoeficacia (designación de recursos sociales, aprendizaje independiente, comportamiento autorregulado) consideradas importantes para el funcionamiento adaptativo a largo plazo. El estudio se centró en tres grupos de adolescentes de grupos minoritarios (nativo americanos, afroamericanos, latinos). Se analizaron las relaciones usando modelos de regresión que también incluyeron cuatro aspectos de riesgo doméstico que generalmente obstaculizan el desarrollo de la autoeficacia. Aunque los resultados variaron un poco en los tres grupos, surgieron relaciones significativas entre los dos ámbitos de la vida hogareña analizados y las creencias de autoeficacia en los tres grupos, aún teniendo en cuenta el riesgo doméstico general. El compañerismo y la inversión parecieron particularmente relevantes en los adolescentes afroamericanos, mientras que el modelado y el fomento parecieron particularmenete relevantes en los adolescentes nativo americanos. Ambos fueron relevantes en los adolescentes latinos.

Parents' and teachers' academic influences, behavioral engagement, and first- and fifth-grade achievement.

Parents and teachers-primary socializers across elementary grades-offer potentially differential support mechanisms for children's healthy functioning across developmental periods. Utilizing child, parent, teacher, and observational data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Department Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (n = 1,031), we employed a longitudinal path model to examine indirect associations between parents' and teachers' academic influences (i.e., direct parental involvement, the student-teacher relationship, instructional support) and achievement (reading and math) through behavioral engagement at 1st and 5th grades. Results indicated indirect associations linking direct parental involvement (positively, 1st grade only), student-teacher conflict (negatively, both grades), and instructional support (positively, both grades) to achievement via behavioral engagement, after accounting for the co-occurrence of parents' and teachers' academic influences and other child characteristics. School psychologists may opt for interventions focusing on parents' and teachers' academic influence to indirectly effect achievement by promoting elementary school behavioral engagement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Theorizing the benefits and costs of adaptive cultures for development.

Child socialization and development are, in part, products of adapting cultural systems. These systems evolve from the combined influence of collective history and current environmental affordances. They permeate family systems, shaping child development via numerous mechanisms, including structures and roles; values, beliefs, and goals; and parenting-to name a few. Recent growth in the study of child development among racial, ethnic, and cultural minority groups, which has been supported by important cultural-developmental theoretical advances, sheds essential light on the ways in which adapting cultural systems permeate child socialization and development in all families. Across this scholarship, there are numerous examples of the effectiveness of adapting cultural systems for promoting developmental competencies. There are also examples, however, in which adapting cultural systems either fail to promote developmental competencies or undermine the development of competencies. To address these theoretical and empirical tensions, we advance a set of propositions. Together, the propositions situate the developmental consequences of adapting cultural systems within multiple scientific traditions, including psychological, ecological, family systems, developmental, and biological perspectives. These propositions can support scientific inquiries aimed at identifying both the benefits and costs of adaptive cultures for development among diverse groups. (PsycINFO Database Record

Unpacking the link between socioeconomic status and behavior problems: A second-order meta-analysis.

Substantial evidence links socioeconomic status to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. However, it is unclear how these two categories of behavior problems relate to specific components of socioeconomic status (e.g., income, educational attainment, and occupational prestige) or overall social status. In this study, we conducted a second-order meta-analysis to estimate the average associations of income, education, occupation, and overall socioeconomic status with internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, and to examine if age, sex, and race/ethnicity moderated these associations. Our systematic search in PsycINFO, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global identified 12 meta-analyses (17% unpublished), including approximately 474 primary studies and 327,617 participants. In relation to internalizing, we found small average associations with income, r+ = -.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-.31, -.04], and education, r+ = -.12, 95% CI [-.15, -.09]. In relation to externalizing, we found smaller associations with income, r+ = -.02, 95% CI [-.15, .10], education, r+ = -.03, 95% CI [-.16, .10], and overall socioeconomic status, r+ = -.05, 95% CI [-.11, .01], but these CIs included zero. Only sex composition of the samples moderated the latter association. We provide recommendations for best practices and future research directions.

Adverse experiences in infancy and toddlerhood: Relations to adaptive behavior and academic status in middle childhood.

Findings from the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study articulated the negative effects of childhood trauma on long-term well-being. The purpose of the current study is to examine the associations between ACEs experienced in infancy and toddlerhood and adaptive behavior and academic status in middle childhood. We used data collected from a sample of low-income families during the impacts study of Early Head Start (EHS). Data were collected by trained interviewers demonstrating at least 85% reliability with protocols. Data come from 1469 socio-demographically diverse mothers and children collected at or near ages 1, 2, 3, and 11. At ages 1, 2, and 3, an EHS-ACEs index was created based on interview and observation items. The EHS-ACEs indices were averaged to represent exposure across infancy and toddlerhood. At age 11, parents were asked about school outcomes and completed the Child Behavior Checklist. Across development, children were exposed to zero (19%), one (31%), two (27%), and three or more ACEs (23%). Logistic regression analyses, controlling for EHS program assignment, and parent, school, and child characteristics, showed ACEs were significantly associated with parental report of the child: having an individualized educational program since starting school and in the current school year, having been retained a grade in school, and problems with externalizing and internalizing behavior, as well as attention. Findings suggest that ACEs influence children's behavioral and academic outcomes early in development.

First grade classroom-level adversity: Associations with teaching practices, academic skills, and executive functioning.

Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development and a model-building approach, the authors examined direct and indirect associations between first-grade (G1) classroom-level adversity (CLA), G1 teaching practices, and student (N = 1,073; M = 6.64 years; 49% girls; 82% White) academic skills and executive functioning in G1 and third grades (G3). Teachers reported the prevalence of adversity among their students (e.g., poor home/family life, poor academic/social readiness). Observers rated G1 teaching practices: teachers' classroom management, controlling instruction, and amount of academic instruction (classroom observation system). Children completed literacy and math assessments at 54 months, G1, and G3 (Woodcock Johnson Letter-Word Identification and Applied Problems), and executive functioning at G1 and G3 (Tower of Hanoi). Direct associations emerged between CLA and controlling instruction (positive), classroom management, and academic instruction (both negative). In addition, CLA was related to G1 literacy (but not math) directly and indirectly via classroom management (negatively) and controlling instruction (positively). The addition of G3 outcomes revealed a negative direct longitudinal association between CLA and G3 executive functioning, and indirect associations with G3 literacy and math through G1 teaching practices and literacy. Results support the notion that collective student characteristics influence student outcomes in part through teaching practices and suggest that teachers and students may benefit from the diffusion of high-adversity classroom compositions when possible. Moreover, in high-adversity classrooms teachers and students may benefit from supports targeting classroom management and foundational student competencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Temperament and Physical Activity in Childhood.

BACKGROUND: Temperament activity level can serve as a proxy for nondeliberate activity and an important part of overall energy expenditure. However, little is known about any association between temperament activity level and children's levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity. We examined whether temperament activity level in young children is associated with moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity later in childhood and midadolescence. We also assessed if parenting behaviors moderate any association. METHODS: Data were obtained from 799 children and their mothers involved in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Growth curve analyses were used to examine the relationships over time, controlling for child and parent characteristics. RESULTS: High temperament activity level at age 4.5 was associated with higher moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity at age 9 (ß = 5.15; SE =2.47; P < .001). The association became no longer significant after 10.2 years of age. The association was moderated by parental support for physical activity (ß = -2.56; SE = 1.01; P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Low temperament activity level in early childhood was a risk factor for low physical activity in later childhood and adolescence. Parental support for physical activity may be beneficial for children whose temperament activity level is low.