ABSTRACT
The base excision DNA repair (BER) pathway known to occur in Caenorhabditis elegans has not been well characterized. Even less is known about the DNA polymerase (pol) requirement for the gap-filling step during BER. We now report on characterization of in vitro uracil-DNA initiated BER in C. elegans. The results revealed single-nucleotide (SN) gap-filling DNA polymerase activity and complete BER. The gap-filling polymerase activity was not due to a DNA polymerase ß (pol ß) homolog, or to another X-family polymerase, since computer-based sequence analyses of the C. elegans genome failed to show a match for a pol ß-like gene or other X-family polymerases. Activity gel analysis confirmed the absence of pol ß in the C. elegans extract. BER gap-filling polymerase activity was partially inhibited by both dideoxynucleotide and aphidicolin. The results are consistent with a combination of both replicative polymerase(s) and lesion bypass/BER polymerase pol θ contributing to the BER gap-filling synthesis. Involvement of pol θ was confirmed in experiments with extract from pol θ null animals. The presence of the SN BER in C. elegans is supported by these results, despite the absence of a pol ß-like enzyme or other X-family polymerase.
Subject(s)
Caenorhabditis elegans/genetics , DNA Repair , DNA-Directed DNA Polymerase/metabolism , Animals , Aphidicolin/pharmacology , Caenorhabditis elegans/enzymology , Caenorhabditis elegans/growth & development , DNA/biosynthesis , DNA Polymerase beta/genetics , DNA-Directed DNA Polymerase/genetics , Gene Deletion , Genomics , Open Reading Frames , DNA Polymerase thetaABSTRACT
Metallothioneins (MTs) protect cells from oxidative damage by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS). Concurrent with protecting cells from ROS-mediated damage, MT transcription is induced by ROS. ROS activate transcription by affecting several signal transduction pathways, many of which have been implicated in regulating MT transcription. ROS-activated intracellular signaling is mediated by the stable lipid peroxide 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE). After determining the level of sensitivity of Hepa 1-6 cells to HNE, MT-1 mRNA expression was shown to be induced in a concentration and time-dependent manner after HNE exposure. Finally, using MT-based reporters, HNE was found to induce MT transcription via both antioxidant response and metal response elements. Thus, ROS may activate MT transcription by generating HNE that in turn affects signaling pathways that regulate MT transcription via the transcription factors AP-1 and MTF-1.
Subject(s)
Aldehydes/pharmacology , Metallothionein/genetics , Transcriptional Activation/genetics , Aldehydes/metabolism , Animals , Antioxidants/pharmacology , COS Cells , Cell Line , Chlorocebus aethiops , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation , Hepatocytes/cytology , Hepatocytes/metabolism , Lipid Peroxides/metabolism , Liver/metabolism , Metallothionein/biosynthesis , Metallothionein/metabolism , Metals/metabolism , Mice , Models, Biological , Oxidation-Reduction , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism , Response Elements/genetics , Signal Transduction/physiology , Transcription Factor AP-1/genetics , Transcription Factor AP-1/metabolism , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Transcription Factor MTF-1ABSTRACT
Base excision repair (BER) is a DNA repair pathway designed to correct small base lesions in genomic DNA. While DNA polymerase beta (pol beta) is known to be the main polymerase in the BER pathway, various studies have implicated other DNA polymerases in back-up roles. One such polymerase, DNA polymerase lambda (pol lambda), was shown to be important in BER of oxidative DNA damage. To further explore roles of the X-family DNA polymerases lambda and beta in BER, we prepared a mouse embryonic fibroblast cell line with deletions in the genes for both pol beta and pol lambda. Neutral red viability assays demonstrated that pol lambda and pol beta double null cells were hypersensitive to alkylating and oxidizing DNA damaging agents. In vitro BER assays revealed a modest contribution of pol lambda to single-nucleotide BER of base lesions. Additionally, using co-immunoprecipitation experiments with purified enzymes and whole cell extracts, we found that both pol lambda and pol beta interact with the upstream DNA glycosylases for repair of alkylated and oxidized DNA bases. Such interactions could be important in coordinating roles of these polymerases during BER.
Subject(s)
DNA Polymerase beta/metabolism , DNA Repair , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Animals , Cell Line , Cell Survival , DNA Damage , DNA Glycosylases/metabolism , DNA Polymerase beta/deficiency , DNA Polymerase beta/genetics , Embryo, Mammalian , Fibroblasts/cytology , Fibroblasts/enzymology , Gene Knockout Techniques , Humans , MiceABSTRACT
DNA polymerase lambda (Pol lambda) is a DNA polymerase beta (Pol beta)-like enzyme with both DNA synthetic and 5'-deoxyribose-5'-phosphate lyase domains. Recent biochemical studies implicated Pol lambda as a backup enzyme to Pol beta in the mammalian base excision repair (BER) pathway. To examine the interrelationship between Pol lambda and Pol beta in BER of DNA damage in living cells, we disrupted the genes for both enzymes either singly or in combination in the chicken DT40 cell line and then characterized BER phenotypes. Disruption of the genes for both polymerases caused hypersensitivity to H(2)O(2)-induced cytotoxicity, whereas the effect of disruption of either polymerase alone was only modest. Similarly, BER capacity in cells after H(2)O(2) exposure was lower in Pol beta(-/-)/Pol lambda(-/-) cells than in Pol beta(-/-), wild-type, and Pol lambda(-/-) cells, which were equivalent. These results suggest that these polymerases can complement for one another in counteracting oxidative DNA damage. Similar results were obtained in assays for in vitro BER capacity using cell extracts. With MMS-induced cytotoxicity, there was no significant effect on either survival or BER capacity from Pol lambda gene disruption. A strong hypersensitivity and reduction in BER capacity was observed for Pol beta(-/-)/Pol lambda(-/-) and Pol beta(-/-) cells, suggesting that Pol beta had a dominant role in counteracting alkylation DNA damage in this cell system.
Subject(s)
DNA Damage , DNA Polymerase beta/physiology , DNA Repair , Animals , Cell Line , Cell Survival , Chickens , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Hydrogen Peroxide/pharmacology , Models, Genetic , NADP/metabolism , Oxygen/metabolism , Plasmids/metabolismABSTRACT
DNA polymerase lambda (pol lambda) is a member of the X family of DNA polymerases that has been implicated in both base excision repair and non-homologous end joining through in vitro studies. However, to date, no phenotype has been associated with cells deficient in this DNA polymerase. Here we show that pol lambda null mouse fibroblasts are hypersensitive to oxidative DNA damaging agents, suggesting a role of pol lambda in protection of cells against the cytotoxic effects of oxidized DNA. Additionally, pol lambda co-immunoprecipitates with an oxidized base DNA glycosylase, single-strand-selective monofunctional uracil-DNA glycosylase (SMUG1), and localizes to oxidative DNA lesions in situ. From these data, we conclude that pol lambda protects cells against oxidative stress and suggest that it participates in oxidative DNA damage base excision repair.
Subject(s)
DNA Damage/physiology , DNA Polymerase beta/physiology , DNA Repair/physiology , Fibroblasts/physiology , Animals , Cell Line , DNA Damage/genetics , DNA Glycosylases/metabolism , DNA Polymerase beta/deficiency , DNA Polymerase beta/genetics , DNA Repair/genetics , HeLa Cells , Humans , Mice , Oxidants/chemistry , Oxidation-Reduction , Pentoxyl/analogs & derivatives , Pentoxyl/pharmacology , Uracil-DNA GlycosidaseABSTRACT
Mammalian DNA polymerase (pol) lambda is a member of the X-family of DNA polymerases and has striking enzymatic and structural similarities to mammalian DNA pol beta. Because pol beta provides two important enzymatic activities for base excision repair (BER), we examined whether pol lambda might also contribute to BER. We used extracts from mouse embryonic fibroblasts representing wild-type and null genotypes for pol beta and pol lambda. In combination with neutralizing antibodies against pol beta and pol lambda, our results show a BER deficiency in the pol lambda -/- cell extract compared with extract from isogenic wild-type cells. In addition, the pol lambda antibody strongly reduced in vitro BER in the pol beta -/- cell extract. These data indicate that pol lambda is able to contribute to BER in mouse fibroblast cell extract.
