Interleukin-15 stimulates macrophages to activate CD4+ T cells: a role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis?

Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is a proinflammatory cytokine that is overexpressed in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a disease characterized by activation of monocytes/macrophages (MPhi), and by expansion of autoreactive CD4(+) T cells. We hypothesized that IL-15 plays a major role for this expansion of CD4(+) T cells and modulates the phenotype of monocytes/MPhi and their interaction with CD4(+) T cells. Here, we show that IL-15 enhances the proliferation of CD4(+) T cells from patients with RA in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cocultures. To further dissect the underlying mechanisms, we employed MPhi from IL-15(-/-) or IL-15 transgenic mice. These were induced to differentiate or were stimulated with IL-15. Here we show that addition of IL-15 during differentiation of MPhi (into 'IL-15MPhi') and overexpression of IL-15 by MPhi from IL-15(tg) mice leads to increased levels of major histocompatibility complex class II expression. This resulted in enhanced stimulation of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells in vitro and was accompanied by reduced messenger RNA expression in MPhi for immunosuppressive SOCS3. The proliferation rates of IL-15MPhi and IL-15(tg)MPhi were high, which was reflected by increased p27(Kip1) and reduced p21(Waf1) levels. In view of high serum and synovial levels of IL-15 in patients with RA, our data suggest the possibility that this excess IL-15 in RA may stimulate monocytes/MPhi to activate the characteristic autoreactive CD4(+) T cells in RA.

MMP19 is essential for T cell development and T cell-mediated cutaneous immune responses.

Matrix metalloproteinase-19 (MMP19) affects cell proliferation, adhesion, and migration in vitro but its physiological role in vivo is poorly understood. To determine the function of MMP19, we generated mice deficient for MMP19 by disrupting the catalytic domain of mmp19 gene. Although MMP19-deficient mice do not show overt developmental and morphological abnormalities they display a distinct physiological phenotype. In a model of contact hypersensitivity (CHS) MMP19-deficient mice showed impaired T cell-mediated immune reaction that was characterized by limited influx of inflammatory cells, low proliferation of keratinocytes, and reduced number of activated CD8(+) T cells in draining lymph nodes. In the inflamed tissue, the low number of CD8(+) T cells in MMP19-deficient mice correlated with low amounts of proinflammatory cytokines, especially lymphotactin and interferon-inducible T cell alpha chemoattractant (I-TAC). Further analyses showed that T cell populations in the blood of immature, unsensitized mice were diminished and that this alteration originated from an altered maturation of thymocytes. In the thymus, thymocytes exhibited low proliferation rates and the number of CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive cells was remarkably augmented. Based on the phenotype of MMP19-deficient mice we propose that MMP19 is an important factor in cutaneous immune responses and influences the development of T cells.

Interleukin-21: a new modulator of immunity, infection, and cancer.

Interleukin-21 is the most recently discovered member of the type-I cytokine family. Structurally, IL-21 shows homology to IL-2, IL-4, and IL-15 proteins. IL-21 shares the common gamma-chain with the other three cytokines but, in addition, binds to a unique IL-21Ralpha chain, and activates the JAK/STAT pathway. IL-21 is mainly produced by activated T-cells but targets a broad range of lymphoid and myeloid cells of the immune system and therefore is able to regulate innate and acquired immune responses. This review intends to give the reader an overview of the recent findings concerning the biology of IL-21 and its physiological role in immunity, infection, and cancer.

Soluble Axl is generated by ADAM10-dependent cleavage and associates with Gas6 in mouse serum.

Axl receptor tyrosine kinase exists as a transmembrane protein and as a soluble molecule. We show that constitutive and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced generation of soluble Axl (sAxl) involves the activity of disintegrin-like metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10). Spontaneous and inducible Axl cleavage was inhibited by the broad-spectrum metalloproteinase inhibitor GM6001 and by hydroxamate GW280264X, which is capable of blocking ADAM10 and ADAM17. Furthermore, murine fibroblasts deficient in ADAM10 expression exhibited a significant reduction in constitutive and inducible Axl shedding, whereas reconstitution of ADAM10 restored sAxl production, suggesting that ADAM10-mediated proteolysis constitutes a major mechanism for sAxl generation in mice. Partially overlapping 14-amino-acid stretch deletions in the membrane-proximal region of Axl dramatically affected sAxl generation, indicating that these regions are involved in regulating the access of the protease to the cleavage site. Importantly, relatively high circulating levels of sAxl are present in mouse sera in a heterocomplex with Axl ligand Gas6. Conversely, two other family members, Tyro3 and Mer, were not detected in mouse sera and conditioned medium. sAxl is constitutively released by murine primary cells such as dendritic and transformed cell lines. Upon immobilization, sAxl promoted cell migration and induced the phosphorylation of Axl and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Thus, ADAM10-mediated generation of sAxl might play an important role in diverse biological processes.

Blocking IL-15 prevents the induction of allergen-specific T cells and allergic inflammation in vivo.

IL-15 has been shown to accelerate and boost allergic sensitization in mice. Using a murine model of allergic sensitization to OVA, we present evidence that blocking endogenous IL-15 during the sensitization phase using a soluble IL-15Ralpha (sIL-15Ralpha) suppresses the induction of Ag-specific, Th2-differentiated T cells. This significantly reduces the production of OVA-specific IgE and IgG and prevents the induction of a pulmonary inflammation. Release of proinflammatory TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, and IL-12 as well as that of Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 into the bronchi are significantly reduced, resulting in suppressed recruitment of eosinophils and lymphocytes after allergen challenge. It is of clinical relevance that the airway hyper-responsiveness, a major symptom of human asthma bronchiale, is significantly reduced by sIL-15Ralpha treatment. Ex vivo analysis of the draining lymph nodes revealed reduced numbers of CD8, but not CD4, memory cells and the inability of T cells of sIL-15Ralpha-treated mice to proliferate and to produce Th2 cytokines after in vitro OVA restimulation. This phenomenon is not mediated by enhanced numbers of CD4(+)/CD25(+) T cells. These results show that IL-15 is important for the induction of allergen-specific, Th2-differentiated T cells and induction of allergic inflammation in vivo.

Interleukin-21 inhibits dendritic cell-mediated T cell activation and induction of contact hypersensitivity in vivo.

Interleukin (IL)-21 is a newly described cytokine that is produced by activated T cells and displays structural homology to IL-4 and IL-15. We here analyzed the role of IL-21 in dendritic cell (DC)-induced, T cell-mediated contact hypersensitivity (CHS) in vivo and on T cell activation and unspecific mixed lymphocyte reaction in vitro. By PCR, we demonstrate here constitutive expression of the specific IL-21 receptor and the common gamma-chain in DC, which together are able to mediate IL-21 signaling. Short-time incubation of in vitro generated DC with IL-21 significantly reduced their potential to induce an antigen-specific CD8+ T cell proliferation. Interestingly, 2h incubation of these DC with IL-21 before injection completely inhibited the potential of these DC to induce a CHS reaction to the hapten fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate in vivo. Mice injected with IL-21-treated DC even failed to mount a CHS response after repetitive injection of non-IL-21-treated DC 2 weeks later, suggesting that an antigen-specific unresponsiveness can be induced by IL-21-treated DC. Our data demonstrate that IL-21 is a new modulator of DC-T cell interaction with the potential to induce DC-mediated antigen-specific tolerance.

Dendritic cell-derived IL-15 controls the induction of CD8 T cell immune responses.

The development and the differentiation of CD8(+) T cells are dependent on IL-15. Here, we have studied the source and mechanism of how IL-15 modulates CD8(+) T cell-mediated Th1 immune responses by employing two delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) models. IL-15-deficient (IL-15(-/-)) mice or mice treated with soluble IL-15Ralpha as an IL-15 antagonist showed significantly reduced CD8(+) T cell-dependent DTH responses, while activation of CD4(+) T cell and B cell functions remained unaffected. Injection of antigen-labeled dendritic cells (DC) from IL-15(+/+), IL-15(-/-) or IL-15Ralpha(-/-) mice revealed that DC-derived IL-15 is an absolute requirement for the initiation of DTH response. The re-establishment of the interaction of IL-15 with the IL-15Ralpha by incubating IL-15(-/-) DC with IL-15 completely restored the capacity to prime T cells for DTH induction in vivo. Moreover, IL-15 also enhanced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by DC and triggered in vitro CD8(+) T cell proliferation and IL-2 release. Taken together, the data suggest that an autocrine IL-15/IL-15Ralpha signaling loop in DC is essential for inducing CD8(+)-dependent Th1 immune responses in mice. Therefore, targeted manipulation of this loop promises to be an effective, novel strategy for therapeutic modulation of clinically relevant DTH reactions.

Interleukin-21 inhibits dendritic cell activation and maturation.

Interleukin 21 (IL-21) is a newly described cytokine with homology to IL-4 and IL-15. They belong to a cytokine family that uses the common gamma chain for signaling but also have their private high-affinity receptors. Since it is well known that IL-4 modulates differentiation and activation of dendritic cells (DCs), we analyzed effects of IL-21 compared with IL-15 on DC differentiation, maturation, and function. Here we show that DCs generated with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GMCSF) in the presence of IL-21 (IL-21DCs) differentiated into phenotypically and functionally altered DCs characterized by reduced major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) expression, high antigen uptake, and low stimulatory capacity for T-cell activation in vitro. Additionally, IL-21DCs completely failed to induce antigen (Ag)-specific T-cell mediated contact hypersensitivity. Furthermore, IL-21 blocked lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced activation and maturation of DCs, which was not mediated by release of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. In contrast, when supplementing GMCSF with IL-15, DCs differentiated into mature antigen-presenting cells (APCs) with low antigen uptake and highly significant increased capacities to stimulate T cells in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results identify a dichotomous action of these structurally related cytokines on DCs, establishing IL-21 as inhibitory cytokine on DC activation and IL-15 as potent stimulator of DC function, making both cytokines interesting targets for therapeutic manipulation of DC-induced immune reactions.

IL-15 promotes the survival of naive and memory phenotype CD8+ T cells.

IL-15 stimulates the proliferation of memory phenotype CD44(high)CD8(+) T cells and is thought to play a key role in regulating the turnover of these cells in vivo. We have investigated whether IL-15 also has the capacity to affect the life span of naive phenotype (CD44(low)) CD8(+) T cells. We report that IL-15 promotes the survival of both CD44(low) and CD44(high) CD8(+) T cells, doing so at much lower concentrations than required to induce proliferation of CD44(high) cells. Rescue from apoptosis was associated with the up-regulation of Bcl-2 in both cell types, whereas elevated expression of Bcl-x(L) was observed among CD44(high) but not CD44(low) CD8(+) cells. An investigation into the role of IL-15R subunits in mediating the effects of IL-15 revealed distinct contributions of the alpha- and beta- and gamma-chains. Most strikingly, IL-15R alpha was not essential for either induction of proliferation or promotion of survival by IL-15, but did greatly enhance the sensitivity of cells to low concentrations of IL-15. By contrast, the beta- and gamma-chains of the IL-15R were absolutely required for the proliferative and pro-survival effects of IL-15, although it was not necessary for CD44(high)CD8(+) cells to express higher levels of IL-15R beta than CD44(low) cells to proliferate in response to IL-15. These results show that IL-15 has multiple effects on CD8 T cells and possesses the potential to regulate the life span of naive as well as memory CD8(+) T cells.

Ventricular hypertrophy plus neurohumoral activation is necessary to alter the cardiac beta-adrenoceptor system in experimental heart failure.

Treatment of rats with monocrotaline (MCT) leads to pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy, and finally to RV heart failure. This is associated with characteristic changes in right ventricular beta-adrenoceptors (beta-AR), neuronal noradrenaline transporter (NAT) density and activity (uptake1), and G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) activity. This study aimed to find out factors that determine beta-AR, uptake1, and GRK changes. Thus, 6-week-old rats were treated with 50 mg/kg MCT subcutaneous or 0.9% saline. Within 13 to 19 days after MCT application (group A), RV weight (222+/-6 versus 147+/-5 mg) and RV/left ventricular (LV) weight ratio (0.42+/-0.01 versus 0.29+/-0.01) were significantly increased, whereas plasma noradrenaline, RV beta-AR density, RV NAT density and activity, and RV GRK activity were not significantly altered. Twenty-one to twenty-eight days after MCT (group B), however, not only RV weight (316+/-4 versus 148+/-2 mg) and RV/LV weight ratio (0.61+/-0.01 versus 0.3+/-0.01) were markedly increased but also plasma noradrenaline (645+/-63 versus 278+/-18 pg/mL); now, RV beta-AR density (13.4+/-1.3 versus 26.5+/-1.1 fmol/mg protein), RV NAT density (50.9+/-11.3 versus 79.6+/-2.9 fmol/mg protein), and RV NAT activity (65.4+/-7.4 versus 111.8+/-15.9 pmol [3H]-NA/mg tissue slices/15 min) were significantly decreased and RV-membrane GRK activity (100+/-15 versus 67+/-6 [32P]-rhodopsin in cpm) significantly increased. LV parameters of MCT-treated rats were only marginally different from control LV. We conclude that in MCT-treated rats ventricular hypertrophy per se is not sufficient to cause characteristic alterations in the myocardial beta-AR system often seen in heart failure; only if ventricular hypertrophy is associated with neurohumoral activation beta-ARs are downregulated and GRK activity is increased.

IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein suppresses murine contact hypersensitivity in vivo.

Interleukin-15 shares several functional properties with interleukin-2, and signals through the beta and gamma chain of the interleukin-2 receptor as well as through its own high affinity alpha chain. In agreement with the concept that interleukin-2 plays a key role in type IV immune responses, we have recently shown that an IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein potently suppresses Th1-type delayed type hypersensitivity reaction and Th2-type allergic sensitization in mice. We have now compared the in vivo effects of IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein with those of IL-15-IgG2b fusion protein in a murine model of Th1-type contact hypersensitivity reaction. Daily systemic injections of IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein during the sensitization phase or application of IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein just 2 h before and 10 h after antigen challenge significantly inhibited the contact hypersensitivity ear swelling response, and this without any overt signs of associated toxicity. Even local injection of IL-2-IgG2b fusion protein into the earlobe around the time of antigen challenge inhibited the ear swelling reaction significantly. In contrast, neither systemic nor local injection of the IL-15-IgG2b fusion protein modulated the contact hypersensitivity reaction significantly. IL-2-IgG2b but not IL-15-IgG2b fusion protein reduced migration of antigen-presenting cells from the skin to local lymph nodes, inhibited the expression of CD80 and CD86, and induced a significant higher number of CD4+CD25+ T cells. Therefore, the IL-2-IgGb fusion protein offers a powerful tool for suppressing and/or preventing T-cell-mediated hypersensitivity reaction in vivo.