Evaluation and optimisation of a footwear assessment tool for use within a clinical environment.

Footwear has been documented as a significant factor in the aetiology of foot pain in the general population. Assessing footwear in a clinical setting continues to be practitioner specific and there is limited guidance to direct advice. Health professionals must have access to clinically appropriate and reliable footwear assessment tools to educate patients on healthier footwear choices. The primary aim of this study was to critique what elements should be in a footwear assessment tool with a secondary aim of testing the agreed tool for validity.A combined Nominal Group Technique and then a Delphi technique from purposively sampled experts of foot health professions were employed to critique elements of footwear assessment. The agreed tool was then tested by practising podiatrists on 5 different shoes to assess the validity and reliability of the measures.Twelve test evaluation criteria were identified receiving significant ratings to form the final footwear assessment tool consisting of five footwear themes. Application of the tool in a clinical setting validated the themes of footwear characteristics, footwear structure, motion control and wear patterns. However, the assessment of footwear fit was not reliable.The footwear tool was refined based on the collective consensus achieved from the rounds creating a more clinically appropriate tool. The validity of this tool was assessed as high in some of the themes but for those that were lower, a training need was identified.

Prevalence of musculoskeletal injury and pain of UK-based podiatrists and the impact of enforced altered working practices.

BACKGROUND: Occupational musculoskeletal injuries are prevalent in healthcare workers and are reported to be profession-specific. There is, however, a paucity of information around the injuries sustained from working as a podiatrist. This paper looks at the incidence of injury from working as a podiatrist, the aggravating factors to sustain these injuries and whether the changes in workload due to the COVID-19 pandemic altered the incidence. METHODS: A modified work based musculoskeletal injury questionnaire was distributed in the UK via podiatry led social media platforms. Open and Closed questions explored the demographics of the sample, perceived injury 12 months prior to the COVID-19 pandemic and then 6 months into the lockdown. Pre and post COVID-19 data were analysed for differences and thematic analysis was included to categorise reported experiences. RESULTS: 148 podiatrists representing 3 % of HCPC registered practitioners responded to the questionnaire. Employment status altered as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic with a 13 % reduction in those working full time. Environments also changed with domiciliary and telehealth significantly increasing (p > 0.00) and non-clinical roles being extended (p > 0.002). Pain frequency and intensity significantly (p > 0.04) increased as a result of the pandemic with shoulder pain being most frequent before lockdown altering to the neck during the lockdown. Two main themes were identified that were attributed to the causes of pain including physical demands and working in awkward spaces. CONCLUSIONS: Work-related musculoskeletal pain in podiatrists is common with the shoulder and neck being the most frequently affected. Changes in work practices due to the restrictions enforced from the COVID-19 pandemic increased the frequency and intensity of pain mostly associated with increased domiciliary and telehealth working environments.

Surface electromyography of the foot: A protocol for sensor placement.

BACKGROUND: The use of surface EMG (sEMG) to record muscle activity is common place yet due to restrictions in technology studies on the intrinsic foot muscles have been limited or only fine wire instruments have been used. AIM: This paper looks at the potential reliability of a sEMG protocol for assessing the intrinsic foot muscles. METHODS: Six intrinsic muscles were defined using ultrasound and muscle function testing. A protocol for sensor placement was created with repeatability and reliability testing of the protocol conducted by three separate testers on three subjects over two different time frames. Inter tester and Inter session repeatability and reliability was measured with ICC and percentage standard error of measurement. RESULTS: Although there was good correlation between Extensor Digitorum Brevis, Dorsal Interossei, Abductor Digiti Minimi and Flexor Digitorum Brevis there was increased variability and poor correlation for Flexor hallucis Brevis and Abductor Hallucis. The percentage standard error of measurement did not support the high ICC values indicating a lower precision of measurement. SIGNIFICANCE: Variability between testers and sessions shows an inconsistent reliability of sEMG and further work is required with protocols focussing on grouping muscles to improve the understanding of the intrinsic foot muscles.

Everyday footwear: An overview of what we know and what we should know on ill-fitting footwear and associated pain and pathology.

Footwear has been used to protect feet for millennia with socially exclusive population adopting stylish and fashionable shoes with expensive materials. In terms of historic timeline, only more recently footwear has been worn by all classes in the western world as an integral part of their apparel. Traditionally, footwear has been constructed from natural materials, mainly leather, but has recently benefitted from the flexibility that technology has provided with a plethora materials and new design innovations. Although it has expanded the availability for a variety of consumers, the choice and fit continue to be problematic with many individuals wearing shoes that are ill-fitting. Provision of specific footwear advice for problem feet is poorly evidenced and is heavily practitioner dependant limiting its efficacy. There is limited understanding as to the changes that can occur from regularly wearing footwear that is unsuitable in shape, style and construction which is referred to as ill-fitting. Current research on the effect that everyday footwear has on foot function and pain focuses mainly on women's shoes, particularly high heels. Defining what is a good fitting shoe, that does not damage the foot or mechanics of walking, may need to be individualised, but best fit is based on loose historical parameters rather than research evidence. The aim of this overview is to highlight aspects of current research, establishing what is known about the effect's shoes have on the feet as well as exploring the mythology around footwear fit and advice that is often historical in nature.

Footwear choices for painful feet - an observational study exploring footwear and foot problems in women.

BACKGROUND: A high percentage of the population report footwear related foot pain, yet there is limited research on the effect footwear has on the development of this pain. The aim of this study was to establish whether footwear purchased by patients have an association with foot pain and what choices determined a purchase decision. METHODS: Shape and size measurements of the dominant foot and footwear (length and width) were taken from 67 female participants who routinely received podiatric treatment. Participants were also asked to complete a short questionnaire to rate the shoe characteristics, emotions whilst wearing and reasons for the purchase. RESULTS: Results highlighted a high prevalence of structural foot pathology for those over 61 who preferred slip on shoes. This group also wore shoes that were significantly narrower than their feet with width difference correlating to the presence of Hallux Abductovarus (HAV). In addition, results indicate that individual footwear advice is more important than previously thought, as it is clear that choice of footwear worn to podiatry appointments are not always worn on a daily basis. CONCLUSIONS: This study emphasises that the width of the shoe is an important part of fit, highlighting the need for patient specific footwear assessment and education for behaviour changes.

The Effect of Toe Flexion Exercises on Grip.

BACKGROUND: Weakness of the toe flexor muscles has been attributed to the development of toe pathologies, and it responds well in the clinic to toe grip exercises. However, it is unknown whether exercising the toe flexor muscles improves the ability to grip and alter function. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of toe flexor exercises on apical plantar pressure, as a measure of grip, while seated and during gait. METHODS: Twenty-three individuals with no known toe pathologies were recruited. Static peak pressure, time spent at peak pressure, and pressure-time integral while seated, as well as dynamic forefoot maximal force, contact area, and percentage contact time, were recorded before and after exercise. Toe grip exercises with a therapy ball were completed daily for 6 weeks. RESULTS: Static peak pressure significantly increased after exercise on the apex of the second and third digits, as did the pressure-time integral. Dynamic peak force and contact area did not alter after exercise around the metatarsals and toes, yet percentage contact time significantly increased for each metatarsal after completing daily toe grip exercises. CONCLUSIONS: Exercises to improve the grip ability of the toes increased the static peak pressure on the apex of the second and third digits as well as the percentage contact time of the metatarsals during gait. The ability to increase apical peak pressure and contact time after exercises could assist in improving forefoot stability and gait efficiency and in reducing toe pathology progression.

Medical-grade footwear: the impact of fit and comfort.

BACKGROUND: Pressure-related skin lesions on the digits are a significant cause of discomfort. Most foot pain related to ill-fitting shoes occurs in the forefoot and digital areas. Pain has been associated with poor shoe fit, reduced toe box volume, as well as contour and shape of the shoe Off-the-shelf medical-grade footwear is designed as an intervention for chronic lesions on the digits. These shoes are designed with a flexible neoprene fabric upper that is thought to reduce pressure on the forefoot and reduce discomfort associated with ill-fitting shoes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an off-the-shelf, medical-grade shoe on dorsal digital pressure and perceived comfort when compared to participant's own preferred shoe. METHODS: Thirty participants (18 females, 12 males) scored their perceived comfort whilst wearing each footwear style using a visual analog comfort scale. Dorsal digital and interdigital pressures were measured in using the WalkinSense® in-shoe pressure system. Sensors were placed on predetermined anatomical landmarks on the digits. Participants were randomly assigned the test shoe and their own shoe. Once wearing the shoe, the participants walked across a 6 m walkway and pressure data from each sensor was collected and processed to obtain peak pressure, time to peak pressure and contact time. RESULTS: Participants scored the test shoe with higher comfort points than their own footwear. Overall peak pressure, pressure time integral and contact time decreased, whilst the time taken to reach peak pressure increased across all anatomical landmarks whilst wearing the test shoe. Statistically significant changes were observed for all of the measured variables relating to pressure on the medial border of the first metatarsophalangeal joint. CONCLUSION: The test shoe provided greater comfort and reduced the amount of pressure on the forefoot. The medical-grade footwear therefore, is a viable alternative to custom made prescription footwear and is more suitable than a regular everyday shoe when treating digital lesions associated with pressure.

The relationship between arch height and foot length: Implications for size grading.

OBJECTIVE: Medial longitudinal Arch Height is synonymous with classifying foot type and conversely foot function. Detailed knowledge of foot anthropometry is essential in the development of ergonomically sound footwear. Current Footwear design incorporates a direct proportionate scaling of instep dimensions with those of foot length. The objective of this paper is to investigate if a direct proportional relationship exists between human arch height parameters and foot length in subjects with normal foot posture. METHOD: A healthy convenience sample of 62 volunteers was recruited to participate in this observational study. All subjects were screened for normal foot health and posture. Each subject's foot dimensions were scanned and measured using a 3D Foot Scanner. From this foot length and arch height parameters were obtained. Normalised ratios of arch height with respect to foot length were also calculated. The arch height parameters and the normalised arch ratios were used interchangeably as the dependent variables with the foot length parameters used as the independent variable for Simple Linear Regression and Correlation. RESULTS: Analysis of foot length measures demonstrated poor correlation with all arch height parameters. CONCLUSION: No significant relationships between arch height and foot length were found. The predictive value of the relationship was found to be poor. This holds significant implications for the current method of proportionate scaling of footwear in terms of fit and function to the midfoot region for a normative population.

Where should a school shoe provide flexibility and support for the asymptomatic 6- to 10-year-olds and on what information is this based? A Delphi yielded consensus.

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of evidence regarding the design of children's footwear in relation to musculoskeletal structure. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to gain consensus regarding where flexibility and support should be given on a school shoe for the 6- to 10-year-olds. STUDY DESIGN: Delphi Questionnaire. METHODS: Recruitment of 10 Allied Health Professionals yielded a consensus group. Those recruited had dedicated experience in paediatrics and foot health. Rounds of questions were delivered to investigate the basis of the opinions made by the group on the location of support and flexibility in a school shoe for the age range identified. RESULTS: Six themes were generated. Four themes gained 100% consensus regarding footwear allowing normal foot movement, footwear allowing normal forefoot function, footwear providing a stable base and the foot being secure in the shoe. Fleiss' kappa calculations revealed 'poor agreement' for the remaining two themes regarding clinical intervention and the purpose of footwear design in the midfoot in both the upper and sole of the shoe. CONCLUSION: The qualitative data generated through discussion have highlighted areas where more understanding and research are required, particularly in understanding how, in the long term, shoe design can affect the developing foot. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Children's footwear advice is often delivered from experience and personal belief. This article questions current understanding and opinion from clinical experts in the field of paediatric footwear and highlights that there is a lack of knowledge and confidence into the effects of children's footwear. There is a strong requirement for further empirical research to be completed on children's footwear to allow clinicians to formulate relevant and appropriate footwear advice.

The impact of different footwear characteristics, of a ballet flat pump, on centre of pressure progression and perceived comfort.

BACKGROUND: Uncomfortable shoes have been attributed to poor fit and the cause of foot pathologies. Assessing and evaluating comfort and fit have proven challenging due to the subjective nature. The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between footwear characteristics and perceived comfort. METHODS: Twenty-seven females assessed three different styles of ballet pump shoe for comfort using a comfort scale whilst walking along a 20 m walkway. The physical characteristics of the shoes and the progression of centre of pressure during walking were assessed. RESULTS: There were significant physical differences between each style, square shoe being the shortest, widest and stiffest and round shoe having the least volume at the toe box. Centre of pressure progression angle was centralised to the longitudinal axis of the foot when wearing each of the three shoes compared to barefoot. Length, width and cantilever bending stiffness had no impact on perceived comfort. CONCLUSION: Wearing snug fitting flexible soled round ballet flat pump is perceived to be the most comfortable of the shoe shapes tested producing a faster more efficient gait. Further investigations are required to assess impact/fit and upper material on perceived comfort to aid consumers with painful feet in purchasing shoes.

The effect of shoe toe box shape and volume on forefoot interdigital and plantar pressures in healthy females.

BACKGROUND: Ill-fitting footwear can be detrimental to foot health with the forefoot being an area for most discomfort. Studies on footwear have primarily examined sports or orthopaedic prescription shoes and little is known about the effects that everyday flat shoes have on the forefoot. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of toe box shape in a popular slip-on pump on dorsal and plantar pressures with particular interest around the forefoot in a healthy female population. METHOD: A convenience sample of 27 female participants with no known foot pathologies was recruited. After assessment of foot size, plantar foot pressure and interdigital pressures were recorded for each of the 3 different toe box styles; round, square and pointed. Participants walked at a self-selected speed over a 10 m walkway whilst wearing each of the 3 styles of shoe and also whilst barefoot. Processed and analysed data extracted included peak pressure, time to peak pressure, contact time and pressure time integral. ANOVA and Freidman analysis was used to test for statistical significance. RESULTS: Shoes with a round toe showed least pressure around the medial aspect of the toes whilst the pointed shoe had least pressure on the lateral toes. Contact times for the plantar regions were not altered in any shoe condition yet contact around the medial aspect of the toes was highest in the pointed shoe. CONCLUSION: This study highlights that the shape of the toe box in footwear can significantly influence the amount of pressure applied to the forefoot. Furthermore, the contours of the shoe also have an impact on the contact time and pressure time integral around the forefoot and also the peak plantar pressure in the toe region. The changes observed could be significant in the development of pathology in certain footwear toe box shapes. Consideration should be given to footwear design around the toe box to improve fit and reduce pressure. Further work is required to investigate the effect of toe box shape and volume on a pathological population with pressure related lesions.

Footwear choices made by young women and their potential impact on foot health.

Modern footwear has been associated with the development of foot pain and pathology in the ageing adult. Yet this foot health issue does not seem to alter the footwear purchases made by younger women. In total, 162 teenage girls were questioned regarding shoes purchased over a 6-month period. The results indicated that footwear choices are activity specific and participants chose the style and design of shoes related to the image they wanted to portray. Association of footwear choice to foot function and health was not found to influence choice of footwear.

Evaluation of lower limb electromyographic activity when using unstable shoes for the first time: a pilot quasi control trial.

BACKGROUND: Unstable shoes, which have recently become popular, claim to provide additional physiological and biomechanical advantages to people who wear them. Alterations in postural stability have been shown when using the shoe after training. However, the immediate effect on muscle activity when walking in unstable shoes for the first time has not been investigated. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate muscle activity and temporal parameters of gait when wearing Masai Barefoot Technology shoes(®) for the first time compared to the subject's own regular trainer shoes. STUDY DESIGN: A pilot repeated-measures quasi control trial. METHOD: Electromyographic measurements of lower leg muscles (soleus, medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, rectus femoris, biceps femoris and gluteus medius) were measured in 15 healthy participants using Masai Barefoot Technology shoes and trainer shoes over a 10-m walkway. Muscle activity of the third and sixth steps was used to study the difference in behaviour of the muscles under the two shoe conditions. Temporal parameters were captured with footswitches to highlight heel strike, heel lift and toe off. Paired samples t-test was completed to compare mean muscle activity for Masai Barefoot Technology and trainer shoes. RESULTS: Indicated that the use of Masai Barefoot Technology shoes increased the intensity of the magnitude of muscle activity. While this increase in the activity was not significant across the subjects, there were inter-individual differences in muscle activity. This variance between the participants demonstrates that some subjects do alter muscle behaviour while wearing such shoes. CONCLUSION: A more rigorous and specific assessment is required when advising patients to purchase the Masai Barefoot Technology shoe. Not all subjects respond positively to using unstable shoes, and the point in time when muscle behaviour can change is variable. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Use of Masai Barefoot Technology shoe in patient management should be monitored closely as the individual muscle changes and the point in time when changes occur vary between subjects, and evaluation of how a subject responds is not yet clear.

The effect of three different toe props on plantar pressure and patient comfort.

BACKGROUND: Arthritic toe pathologies frequently lead to the development of painful apical pressure skin lesions that can compromise gait and affect quality of life. Historically conservative treatments involve the use of a toe prop with the intended aim of reducing plantar pressure from the apex of the digit. However, the effect of toe prop treatment on plantar digital pressure has not been investigated. METHOD: Twenty two subjects were recruited with lesser digital deformities and associated apical skin lesions. Individual pressure sensors were placed on the apices of the lesser toes and pressure was recorded under three toe prop conditions (leather, gel and silicone mould). A modified comfort index was utilised to assess the comfort of each condition. RESULTS: Significant difference (p < 0.05) in mean peak pressure was observed at the apex of the 2nd toe when using the gel (p < 0.001) and silicone (p < 0.001) toe prop compared to no toe prop. There was also a significant difference in the mean pressure time integral at the apex of the 2nd toe when using gel (p < 0.001) and silicone (p < 0.004) toe props. There was no significant correlation between comfort and the recorded peak pressures. However, there was an indication that the silicone toe prop was more comfortable. CONCLUSION: As compared to the leather and silicone mould toe props, gel toe props were found to be the most effective for reducing peak pressure and pressure time integral on the apex of the second digit in patients with claw or hammer toe deformity.

Comparison of pelvic complex kinematics during treadmill and overground walking.

OBJECTIVES: To determine if there are changes in temporal gait parameters with a focus on pelvis when comparing overground and treadmill ambulation, and to assess the effect of sex. DESIGN: An observational study employing motion analysis techniques to evaluate pelvic movement during gait. SETTING: University biomechanics laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Men (n=8; 22.5±3.0 y) and women (n=6; 23.8±4.1 y). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cadence, stride time, stance phase percent, and pelvic tilt, obliquity, and rotation parameters throughout the gait cycle were assessed during overground and treadmill walking. Kinematic data were recorded using a passive full body marker based motion analysis system. While an independent sample t test was used to determine if differences in walking speed were evident between sexes, a 2-way, repeated-measures analysis of variance was performed to examine the effect of walking mode and sex on each dependent variable. RESULTS: Significant differences (P<.05) between overground and treadmill walking for the temporal parameters analyzed were evident for both sexes. A lower pelvic obliquity motion for treadmill walking when compared with overground walking was evident for both sexes, and the pelvic rotation movement pattern showed the greatest difference between walking modes. The majority of the significant differences between sexes were of a magnitude greater than the differences between overground and treadmill walking. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in temporal and angular kinematics identified in the present study should be considered when treadmills are used in a rehabilitation program.

Function of the triceps surae muscle group in low and high arched feet: an exploratory study.

The Achilles tendon has been shown to be comprised of segmental components of tendon arising from the tricpes surae muscle group. Motion of the foot joints in low and high arched feet may induce a change in behaviour of the triceps surae muscle group due to altered strain on the tendon. Surface electromyogram of the medial and lateral gastrocnemius and the soleus muscle from 12 subjects (with 6 low arched and 6 high arched feet) (1:1) was recorded whilst walking at a self selected speed along a 10m walkway. The results showed a high variability in muscle activity between groups with patterns emerging within groups. Soleus was more active in 50% of the low arch feet at forefoot loading and there was a crescendo of activity towards heel lift in 58% of all subjects. This observed variability between groups and foot types emphasises the need for further work on individual anatomical variation and foot function to help in the understanding and management of Achilles tendon pathologies and triceps surae dysfunction.

Do foot orthoses replicate the static longitudinal arch angle during midstance in walking?

INTRODUCTION: In a normal clinical environment, foot function and treatment efficacy is evaluated using static foot posture assessment. Whilst there are several methods of static assessment, the longitudinal arch angle (LAA) has been validated as a repeatable and reliable static measure that represents foot posture during midstance whilst walking and running. The main aim of this study was to assess if static LAA is representative of dynamic LAA with the use of orthoses. METHOD: 17 male subjects with a mean age of 33.4 (SD 12.3) years, mean height of 169.88 (SD 9.2) mm and a mean weight of 72.71 (SD 11.36)kg, who provided an informed consent were included in the study. Orthotic prescription was produced using measurements from a weightbearing goniometer. An optoelectronic movement analysis system was employed to record and analyse the LAA in barefoot, shoe and shoe with orthoses conditions. This data was collected in a static standing condition and then repeated whilst walking. RESULTS: No significant differences were observed between right static and right dynamic barefoot condition t=1.329 (p=0.05). Same results were observed for right static and right dynamic orthotic condition t=-.233 (p=0.05). Similarly, no significant differences were recorded for left static and left dynamic barefoot condition and orthotic condition t=.303 (p=0.05) and t=.049 (p=0.05) respectively. However, differences were observed within the shoe only condition. CONCLUSION: LAA is been shown to be a good static measure for dynamic foot function and can reliably be implemented in a normal clinical environment to evaluate and assess the efficacy of the prescribed foot orthoses.

The effect of simple insoles on three-dimensional foot motion during normal walking.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to establish the effect of simple non moulded flat based insoles on three-dimensional foot motion during normal walking. Excessive foot pronation is considered a major contributing factor to lower limb injuries. Moulded foot orthoses have been shown to decrease maximum foot eversion. Simple insoles are widely used in clinical practice as an alternative to moulded orthoses. However, there has been little research into the kinematic effects of simple insoles. METHODS: All subjects had an inverted rearfoot and forefoot position when the subtalar joint was placed in neutral, which was assessed by a weight bearing goniometer. Rotations of the whole foot about three orthogonal axes relative to the shank were estimated using a five camera motion analysis system. FINDINGS: Biplanar insoles significantly (P < 0.05) reduced maximum eversion by an average of 3.1 degrees when compared to the no insole condition. The cobra insole reduced maximum eversion by an average of 2.1 degrees when compared to the no insole condition. This difference approached statistical significance (P = 0.058). INTERPRETATION: Biplanar and cobra insoles had no significant effect on maximum dorsiflexion, abduction or rate of eversion, when compared to the no insole condition. These results provide some limited support for the use of simple insoles to control for excessive foot pronation during walking.