Mechanism of cargo-directed Atg8 conjugation during selective autophagy.

Selective autophagy is mediated by cargo receptors that link the cargo to the isolation membrane via interactions with Atg8 proteins. Atg8 proteins are localized to the membrane in an ubiquitin-like conjugation reaction, but how this conjugation is coupled to the presence of the cargo is unclear. Here we show that the S. cerevisiae Atg19, Atg34 and the human p62, Optineurin and NDP52 cargo receptors interact with the E3-like enzyme Atg12~Atg5-Atg16, which stimulates Atg8 conjugation. The interaction of Atg19 with the Atg12~Atg5-Atg16 complex is mediated by its Atg8-interacting motifs (AIMs). We identify the AIM-binding sites in the Atg5 subunit and mutation of these sites impairs selective autophagy. In a reconstituted system the recruitment of the E3 to the prApe1 cargo is sufficient to drive accumulation of conjugated Atg8 at the cargo. The interaction of the Atg12~Atg5-Atg16 complex and Atg8 with Atg19 is mutually exclusive, which may confer directionality to the system.

Two Independent Pathways within Selective Autophagy Converge to Activate Atg1 Kinase at the Vacuole.

Autophagy is a potent cellular degradation pathway, and its activation needs to be tightly controlled. Cargo receptors mediate selectivity during autophagy by bringing cargo to the scaffold protein Atg11 and, in turn, to the autophagic machinery, including the central autophagy kinase Atg1. Here we show how selective autophagy is tightly regulated in space and time to prevent aberrant Atg1 kinase activation and autophagy induction. We established an induced bypass approach (iPass) that combines genetic deletion with chemically induced dimerization to evaluate the roles of Atg13 and cargo receptors in Atg1 kinase activation and selective autophagy progression. We show that Atg1 activation does not require cargo receptors, cargo-bound Atg11, or Atg13 per se. Rather, these proteins function in two independent pathways that converge to activate Atg1 at the vacuole. This pathway architecture underlies the spatiotemporal control of Atg1 kinase activity, thereby preventing inappropriate autophagosome formation.

An in vivo detection system for transient and low-abundant protein interactions and their kinetics in budding yeast.

Methylation tracking (M-Track) is a protein-proximity assay in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, allowing the detection of transient protein-protein interactions in living cells. The bait protein is fused to a histone lysine methyl transferase and the prey protein to a methylation acceptor peptide derived from histone 3. Upon interaction, the histone 3 fragment is stably methylated on lysine 9 and can be detected by methylation-specific antibodies. Since methylation marking is irreversible in budding yeast and only takes place in living cells, the occurrence of artifacts during cell lysate preparation is greatly reduced, leading to a more accurate representation of native interactions. So far, this method has been limited to highly abundant or overexpressed proteins. However, many proteins of interest are low-abundant, and overexpression of proteins may interfere with their function, leading to an artificial situation. Here we report the generation of a toolbox including a novel cleavage-enrichment system for the analysis of very low-abundant proteins at their native expression levels. In addition, we developed a system for the parallel analysis of two prey proteins in a single cell, as well as an inducible methylation system. The inducible system allows precise control over the time during which the interaction is detected and can be used to determine interaction kinetics. Furthermore, we generated a set of constructs facilitating the cloning-free genomic tagging of proteins at their endogenous locus by homologous recombination, and their expression from centromeric plasmids.

Early steps in autophagy depend on direct phosphorylation of Atg9 by the Atg1 kinase.

Bulk degradation of cytoplasmic material is mediated by a highly conserved intracellular trafficking pathway termed autophagy. This pathway is characterized by the formation of double-membrane vesicles termed autophagosomes engulfing the substrate and transporting it to the vacuole/lysosome for breakdown and recycling. The Atg1/ULK1 kinase is essential for this process; however, little is known about its targets and the means by which it controls autophagy. Here we have screened for Atg1 kinase substrates using consensus peptide arrays and identified three components of the autophagy machinery. The multimembrane-spanning protein Atg9 is a direct target of this kinase essential for autophagy. Phosphorylated Atg9 is then required for the efficient recruitment of Atg8 and Atg18 to the site of autophagosome formation and subsequent expansion of the isolation membrane, a prerequisite for a functioning autophagy pathway. These findings show that the Atg1 kinase acts early in autophagy by regulating the outgrowth of autophagosomal membranes.

Binding of the Atg1/ULK1 kinase to the ubiquitin-like protein Atg8 regulates autophagy.

Autophagy is an intracellular trafficking pathway sequestering cytoplasm and delivering excess and damaged cargo to the vacuole for degradation. The Atg1/ULK1 kinase is an essential component of the core autophagy machinery possibly activated by binding to Atg13 upon starvation. Indeed, we found that Atg13 directly binds Atg1, and specific Atg13 mutations abolishing this interaction interfere with Atg1 function in vivo. Surprisingly, Atg13 binding to Atg1 is constitutive and not altered by nutrient conditions or treatment with the Target of rapamycin complex 1 (TORC1)-inhibitor rapamycin. We identify Atg8 as a novel regulator of Atg1/ULK1, which directly binds Atg1/ULK1 in a LC3-interaction region (LIR)-dependent manner. Molecular analysis revealed that Atg13 and Atg8 cooperate at different steps to regulate Atg1 function. Atg8 targets Atg1/ULK1 to autophagosomes, where it may promote autophagosome maturation and/or fusion with vacuoles/lysosomes. Moreover, Atg8 binding triggers vacuolar degradation of the Atg1-Atg13 complex in yeast, thereby coupling Atg1 activity to autophagic flux. Together, these findings define a conserved step in autophagy regulation in yeast and mammals and expand the known functions of LIR-dependent Atg8 targets to include spatial regulation of the Atg1/ULK1 kinase.