Self-regulatory processes in goal striving during excellent distance-running performances: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: Goal setting can improve endurance performance, yet how endurance performers maintain goal striving and bring it to a successful close has received limited attention. In this study, we investigated the self-regulatory processes employed by long-distance runners during goal striving in excellent competitive performances. METHOD: Through in-depth, event-focused interviews, we explored 21 long-distance runners' experiences of goal striving in excellent competitive performances (M = 77.43 h post-race). Furthermore, we recruited 10 additional participants with relevant experiences (runner n = 7, coach n = 2; sport psychologist n = 1) for external member-reflection interviews. FINDINGS: Through our matrix analysis, we interpreted that by contrasting their current and future goal status periodically throughout their excellent performances, using a process called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII), this helped the runners to make decisions about whether to persist with a goal, or disengage from a goal and reengage with an alternative. Furthermore, our findings depict how these goal decisions unfolded when runners perceived they were behind, equalling, or exceeding their goal(s). We also illustrate how goal revision was used as an adaptive process to maximise performance, and to avert or manage action crises. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings extend theoretical understandings of goal striving and the self-regulatory processes endurance performers employ to attain and/or adapt their goals. Psychological support provided for athletes should go beyond simply setting goals, but also include training on mental frameworks such as MCII to manage goal-striving challenges and decisional conflict encountered during performances.

Predicting school uptake of The Daily Mile in Northern Ireland- a data linkage study with School Census Data and Multiple Deprivation Measures.

BACKGROUND: Participating in physical activity benefits health, yet a majority of children remain inactive. The Daily Mile™ (TDM) originated in Scotland in 2012 with the aim of increasing primary school children's physical fitness. Despite being a practically feasible and popular initiative, it remains unclear the extent to which schools implement TDM, and whether TDM core principles are adhered to (i.e., run or jog at least 3-days per week). In Northern Ireland it is unknown how many schools regularly participate in TDM, and whether there is an association between TDM participation with school type, school location, size, total number of children attending the school, school deprivation level, and/or motivation as measured by the COM-B model (Capabilities, Opportunities, Motivation model of behaviour). Therefore, this study aimed to quantify the uptake of TDM in Northern Ireland, assess whether schools are following the core principles, and analyse if there is an association between aforesaid demographic factors and TDM participation. METHODS: An online cross-sectional survey was sent to all primary and special education schools in Northern Ireland with the support of the Education Authority for Northern Ireland and the Public Health Agency for Northern Ireland. The survey was completed by the school principal or teacher, and was available from 31st August until 16th December 2022. Survey results were linked with the 2021/2022 Northern Ireland School Census Data and Northern Ireland Multiple Deprivation Measure 2017. Quantitative and qualitative questions were included in the survey to assess participation and implementation of TDM. RESULTS: The survey received 609 school responses. After data cleaning, and removal of duplicates from schools a sample of 358 primary schools (45%) and 19 special education schools (47.5%) was analysed. Over half (54.7%) of primary schools and 36.8% of special education schools reported taking part in TDM. More special education needs schools reported taking part in their own version of an 'active mile' rather than TDM formally, and qualitative findings showed TDM was not perceived as appropriate for many children in special educational settings. There was wide variation in adherence to TDM core principles. A multivariate binary logistic regression model was fitted to the data, but it was not statistically significant (χ2(17) = 22.689, p = .160). However, univariate effects showed that increasing levels on COM-B (Capability) was associated with increased likelihood of TDM participation (OR = 2.506), and Catholic Maintained schools were almost twice as likely as Controlled schools to be delivering TDM (OR = 1.919). There was no association found between deprivation and TDM uptake. CONCLUSION: Encouragingly over 50% of schools in Northern Ireland reported taking part in TDM. However, despite being a low-cost and practically feasible physical activity initiative, further intervention work with sound research methodology is needed to promote adherence to TDM core principles to maximise benefits to children's health. Furthermore, concerted efforts are required to adjust TDM so that it is inclusive for all educational settings, and children's abilities.

A systematic review of the effect of The Daily Mile™ on children's physical activity, physical health, mental health, wellbeing, academic performance and cognitive function.

BACKGROUND: A minority of children in the United Kingdom meet the recommended physical activity guidelines. One initiative which has been introduced to try and increase the physical activity levels of school children is The Daily Mile™ (TDM). The aim of this review was to determine the effect of TDM on children's physical activity levels, physical health, mental health, wellbeing, academic performance and cognitive function. METHODS: Six databases were systematically searched from TDM's inception (2012) to 30th June 2022. Studies were included if they involved school-aged children (aged 4-12 years), taking part in TDM and measured at least one pre-defined outcome. RESULTS: Thirteen studies were included from the 123 studies retrieved. Longer-term participation in TDM was found to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and physical fitness. None of the studies reported a significant change in Body Mass Index or academic performance. An acute bout of TDM was not found to improve cognitive function, however one good-quality study reported that longer-term participation in TDM increased visual spatial working memory. There was evidence from one fair-quality design study that TDM can improve mental health in the short term. There were no significant effects on wellbeing, however scores on self-perceptions improved mainly for children with low baseline self-perceptions. CONCLUSION: There is evidence to show that TDM can increase physical activity and physical fitness. However, higher-quality research, with adequate participant randomisation and longer-term, post-intervention follow-up is needed to ensure that any changes accurately reflect the components of TDM and are sustained beyond an intervention time frame. Policy recommendations of TDM increasing PA levels in the short term are supported by the evidence in this review. However, long-term improvement on mental health, wellbeing, academic performance and cognitive function requires further good-to excellent quality research. Promisingly, several protocol articles that include randomised controlled trials with long term follow-up have been published. These higher-quality design studies may provide a stronger evidence-base on the effects of TDM on children's health and should underpin future recommendations in public health policy. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42022340303.

Frequency, intensity and duration of muscle strengthening activity and associations with mental health.

OBJECTIVES: Despite growing emphasis on the benefits of physical activity for promoting mental health, inclusion of muscle-strengthening (MS) (e.g., body-weight exercises, resistance machines) activities is limited. Notably, few studies collectively assess MS behavioural frequency, duration, and intensity. To address the gap, the current study examined associations between frequency (days), intensity (rating of perceived exertion in relation to repetitions in reserve [RPE/RIR]), and duration (minutes per typical session) of MS activities on anxiety, depression, and mental well-being. METHOD: A cross-sectional study of 601 participants (Mean age = 30.92 years [SD = 12.70]; 57.7 % female) across Ireland was conducted. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire containing MS instruments previously used, or adapted from valid and reliable measures (i.e., International Physical Activity Questionnaire IPAQ, RPE/RIR), alongside, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), Patient Health Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8) and the Mental Health Continuum- Short Form (MHC-SF). A multivariate regression model was tested in MPLUS, using dummy coding for MS frequency in relation to no activity (i.e., 0-days) non-adherence (i.e., 1-day), adherence (i.e., 2-days) and enhanced adherence (i.e., ≥3 days) to the MS public health guidelines, with the mental health variables representing the dependent variables. Intensity and duration were specified in the model as continuous variables; gender and age were included as statistical controls. RESULTS: Three or more days engaged in MS activities was associated with fewer anxiety (ß = -0.12, p < .05) and depression (ß = -0.14, p < .01) symptoms. Increased intensity had a negative association with anxiety (ß = -0.10, p < .05) and depression (ß = -0.15, p < .001). Unexpectedly, adherence to the MS guidelines (2-days) did not predict any of the mental health outcomes, whereas 1-day of MS activity was associated with fewer depression symptoms (ß = -0.11). No effects were observed for mental well-being, and MS duration exerted a null effect across all mental health outcomes. CONCLUSION: Higher frequency and intensity of MS activities may protect against anxiety and depression symptoms. Doing some MS activities (at least 1-day) is likely more beneficial than none for depression. Evidence-based, MS interventions may help curb mental illness rates, and future longitudinal, intervention-based research could consider inclusion of MS frequency, intensity and duration variables to enhance efforts to identify at-risk groups and trends within physical activity and mental illness surveillance.

Longitudinal Associations Between Athletes' Psychological Needs and Burnout Across a Competitive Season: A Latent Difference Score Analysis.

Participation in sport can paradoxically be a source of psychological needs satisfaction and psychological needs frustration. Self-determination theory was applied to explain temporal relationships of athletes' psychological needs satisfactions and psychological needs frustrations with burnout through a two-wave longitudinal study. Participants included 184 athletes (Mage = 24.04 years, SD = 5.56, 67.9% male) representing a range of competitive levels. A latent difference score model specifying longitudinal relationships between burnout and needs satisfactions and needs frustrations was tested. Significant within-variable changes were observed for all needs-satisfaction and needs-frustration variables. Longitudinal associations were found in Models 3 (autonomy frustration) and 6 (relatedness satisfaction). Higher burnout at baseline predicted an increase in autonomy frustration (ß = 0.13, p < .05), whereas higher relatedness satisfaction at baseline reduced burnout levels later in the season (ß = -0.22, p < .001). To conclude, continuous tracking of athlete burnout levels and fostering of needs-supportive climates that minimize autonomy-controlling behaviors are recommended for the burnout prevention in athletes.

Barriers and facilitators of physical activity in adolescents with intellectual disabilities: An analysis informed by the COM-B model.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents with intellectual disabilities are insufficiently physically active. Where interventions have been developed and delivered, these have had limited effectiveness, and often lack a theoretical underpinning. AIM: Through application of the COM-B model, our aim is to explore the factors influencing adolescent physical activity within schools. METHODS: A qualitative methodology, using focus groups with students who have mild/moderate intellectual disabilities, their parents'/carers' and teachers'. The COM-B model provided the lens through which the data were collected and analysed. RESULTS: We identified of a range of individual, interpersonal, and environmental factors influencing physical activity, across all six COM-B constructs, within the context of the 'school-system'. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to use the COM-B model to explore school-based physical activity behaviour, for adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Identification of such physical activity behavioural determinants can support the development of effective and sustainable interventions.

Anticipated Task Difficulty Provokes Pace Conservation and Slower Running Performance.

PURPOSE: Models of self-paced endurance performance suggest that accurate knowledge of the exercise end-point influences pace-related decision making. No studies have examined the effects of anticipated task difficulty during equidistant endurance activities. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of anticipated task difficulty on pacing, psychological, and physiological responses during running time trials. METHODS: Twenty-eight trained runners completed three self-paced 3000-m time trials. The first was a baseline time trial completed on a 0% treadmill gradient. Time trials 2 and 3 were counterbalanced. Before a known incline time trial, anticipated to be more difficult, subjects were accurately informed that the gradient would increase to 7% for the final 800 m. Before an equivalent, unknown incline (UI) time trial subjects were deceptively informed that the gradient would remain at 0% throughout. RESULTS: Expressed relative to baseline, running speed was 2.44% slower (d = -0.47) over the first 2200 m during known incline (KI) time trial than UI time trial. Effort perception, affective valence, heart rate, and blood lactate did not differ between time trials. Initial running speed during KI was related to pretrial motivation, pretrial vigor, perceived effort, and affective valence (all r ≥ 0.382). No such relationships existed during UI. More subjects also reported a conscious focus on pacing during KI. CONCLUSIONS: An anticipated increase in task difficulty provoked pace conservation during 3000 m running time trials. The reduced pace may have resulted from greater task uncertainty and consciously aware, effort- and affect-based decisions to conserve energy and maintain hedonic state during KI. The findings add to theoretical understandings of factors that influence pacing during endurance activity. Consequently, recommendations to minimize the potentially deleterious effects of anticipated increases in task difficulty are provided.

Extremely short duration interval exercise improves 24-h glycaemia in men with type 2 diabetes.

PURPOSE: Reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training (REHIT) is a genuinely time-efficient exercise intervention that improves aerobic capacity and blood pressure in men with type 2 diabetes. However, the acute effects of REHIT on 24-h glycaemia have not been examined. METHODS: 11 men with type 2 diabetes (mean ± SD: age, 52 ± 6 years; BMI, 29.7 ± 3.1 kg/m2; HbA1c, 7.0 ± 0.8%) participated in a randomised, four-trial crossover study, with continual interstitial glucose measurements captured during a 24-h dietary-standardised period following either (1) no exercise (CON); (2) 30 min of continuous exercise (MICT); (3) 10 × 1 min at ~ 90 HRmax (HIIT; time commitment, ~ 25 min); and (4) 2 × 20 s 'all-out' sprints (REHIT; time commitment, 10 min). RESULTS: Compared to CON, mean 24-h glucose was lower following REHIT (mean ± 95%CI: - 0.58 ± 0.41 mmol/L, p = 0.008, d = 0.55) and tended to be lower with MICT (- 0.37 ± 0.41 mmol/L, p = 0.08, d = 0.35), but was not significantly altered following HIIT (- 0.37 ± 0.59 mmol/L, p = 0.31, d = 0.35). This seemed to be largely driven by a lower glycaemic response (area under the curve) to dinner following both REHIT and MICT (- 11%, p < 0.05 and d > 0.9 for both) but not HIIT (- 4%, p = 0.22, d = 0.38). Time in hyperglycaemia appeared to be reduced with all three exercise conditions compared with CON (REHIT: - 112 ± 63 min, p = 0.002, d = 0.50; MICT: -115 ± 127 min, p = 0.08, d = 0.50; HIIT - 125 ± 122 min, p = 0.04, d = 0.54), whilst indices of glycaemic variability were not significantly altered. CONCLUSION: REHIT may offer a genuinely time-efficient exercise option for improving 24-h glycaemia in men with type 2 diabetes and warrants further study.

Decreasing sprint duration from 20 to 10 s during reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training (REHIT) attenuates the increase in maximal aerobic capacity but has no effect on affective and perceptual responses.

Recent studies have demonstrated that modifying the "classic" 6 × 30-s "all-out" sprint interval training protocol by incorporating either shorter sprints (6 × 10-s or 15-s sprints) or fewer sprints (e.g., 2 × 20-s sprints; reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training (REHIT)) does not attenuate the training-induced improvements in maximal aerobic capacity. The aim of the present study was to determine if reducing the sprint duration in the REHIT protocol from 20 s to 10 s per sprint influences acute affective responses and the change in maximal aerobic capacity following training. Thirty-six sedentary or recreationally active participants (17 women; mean ± SD; age: 22 ± 3 years; body mass index: 24.5 ± 4.6 kg·m-2; maximal aerobic capacity: 37 ± 8 mL·kg-1·min-1) were randomised to a group performing a "standard" REHIT protocol involving 2 × 20-s sprints or a group who performed 2 × 10-s sprints. Maximal aerobic capacity was determined before and after 6 weeks of 3 weekly training sessions. Acute affective responses and perceived exertion were assessed during training. Greater increases in maximal aerobic capacity were observed for the group performing 20-s sprints (2.77 ± 0.75 to 3.04 ± 0.75 L·min-1; +10%) compared with the group performing 10-s sprints (2.58 ± 0.57 vs. 2.67 ± 3.04 L·min-1; +4%; group × time interaction effect: p < 0.05; d = 1.06). Positive affect and the mood state vigour increased postexercise, while tension, depression, and total mood disturbance decreased, and negative affect remained unchanged. Affective responses and perceived exertion were not altered by training and were not different between groups. In conclusion, reducing sprint duration in the REHIT protocol from 20 s to 10 s attenuates improvements in maximal aerobic capacity, and does not result in more positive affective responses or lower perceived exertion.

Environmental Influences on Elite Sport Athletes Well Being: From Gold, Silver, and Bronze to Blue Green and Gold.

This paper considers the environmental impact on well-being and performance in elite athletes during Olympic competition. The benefits of exercising in natural environments are recognized, but less is known about the effects on performance and health in elite athletes. Although some Olympic events take place in natural environments, the majority occur in the host city, usually a large densely populated area where low exposure to natural environments is compounded by exposure to high levels of air, water, and noise pollution in the ambient environment. By combining methods and expertise from diverse but inter-related disciplines including environmental psychology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, environmental science, and epidemiology, a transdisciplinary approach will facilitate a greater understanding of the effects of the environment on Olympic athletes.

Thinking and Action: A Cognitive Perspective on Self-Regulation during Endurance Performance.

Self-regulation reflects an individual's efforts to bring behavior and thinking into line with often consciously desired goals. During endurance activity, self-regulation requires an athlete to balance their speed or power output appropriately to achieve an optimal level of performance. Considering that both behavior and thinking are core elements of self-regulation, this article provides a cognitive perspective on the processes required for effective pace-regulation during endurance performance. We also integrate this viewpoint with physiological and performance outcomes during activity. As such, evidence is presented to suggest that what an athlete thinks about has an important influence on effort perceptions, physiological outcomes, and, consequently, endurance performance. This article also provides an account of how an athlete might control their cognition and focus attention during an endurance event. We propose that effective cognitive control during performance requires both proactive, goal-driven processes and reactive, stimulus-driven processes. In addition, the role of metacognition-or thinking about thinking-in pace-regulation will also be considered. Metacognition is an essential component of self-regulation and its primary functions are to monitor and control the thoughts and actions required for task completion. To illustrate these processes in action, a metacognitive framework of attentional focus and cognitive control is applied to an endurance performance setting: specifically, Bradley Wiggins' successful 2015 Hour record attempt in cycling. Finally, future perspectives will consider the potentially deleterious effects of the sustained cognitive effort required during prolonged and strenuous endurance tasks.

Altering Pace Control and Pace Regulation: Attentional Focus Effects during Running.

PURPOSE: To date, there are no published studies directly comparing self-controlled (SC) and externally controlled (EC) pace endurance tasks. However, previous research suggests pace control may impact on cognitive strategy use and effort perceptions. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effects of manipulating perception of pace control on attentional focus, physiological, and psychological outcomes during running. The secondary aim was to determine the reproducibility of self-paced running performance when regulated by effort perceptions. METHODS: Twenty experienced endurance runners completed four 3-km time trials on a treadmill. Subjects completed two SC pace trials, one perceived exertion clamped (PE) trial, and one EC pace time trial. PE and EC were completed in a counterbalanced order. Pacing strategy for EC and perceived exertion instructions for PE replicated the subjects' fastest SC time trial. RESULTS: Subjects reported a greater focus on cognitive strategies such as relaxing and optimizing running action during EC than during SC. The mean HR was 2% lower during EC than that during SC despite an identical pacing strategy. Perceived exertion did not differ between the three conditions. However, increased internal sensory monitoring coincided with elevated effort perceptions in some subjects during EC and a 10% slower completion time for PE (13.0 ± 1.6 min) than that for SC (11.8 ± 1.2 min). CONCLUSIONS: Altering pace control and pace regulation impacted on attentional focus. External control over pacing may facilitate performance, particularly when runners engage attentional strategies conducive to improved running efficiency. However, regulating pace based on effort perceptions alone may result in excessive monitoring of bodily sensations and a slower running speed. Accordingly, attentional focus interventions may prove beneficial for some athletes to adopt task-appropriate attentional strategies to optimize performance.