Improved antitumour immunity in murine neuroblastoma using a combination of IL-2 and IL-12.

Neuroblastoma immunotherapy using cytokine-modified tumour cells has been tested in clinical trials. However, because of the complex nature of antitumour immune responses, a number of therapies may be required for complete tumour eradication and generation of systemic immunity. We report here the improved antitumour effect of two cytokines, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interleukin-12 (IL-12), when coexpressed by neuroblastoma cell lines. Initially, transfection of human and mouse neuroblastoma cell lines resulted in high expression levels of biologically active IL-2 and IL-12 in vitro. These cytokines when expressed by transfected Neuro-2A cells completely abolished their in vivo tumorigenicity in a syngeneic neuroblastoma model. Vaccination of established tumours with IL-12-producing cells exhibited a clear effect with reduced tumour growth in the presence of IL-2. In vivo depletion studies showed that CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells mediate the response against cytokine-producing cells. These results suggest that IL-2 and IL-12, when cotransfected in tumour cells, are effective against established disease and provide a promising immunotherapeutic approach for the treatment of neuroblastoma.

Cutting edge: the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein is required for efficient phagocytosis of apoptotic cells.

Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by macrophages and dendritic cells is necessary for clearance of proinflammatory debris and for presentation of viral, tumor, and self Ags. While a number of receptors involved in the cognate recognition of apoptotic cells by phagocytes have been identified, the signaling events that result in internalization remain poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that clearance of apoptotic cells is accompanied by recruitment of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) protein to the phagocytic cup and that it's absence results in delayed phagocytosis both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, we propose that WAS protein plays an important and nonredundant role in the safe removal of apoptotic cells and that deficiency contributes significantly to the immune dysregulation of WAS. The efficiency of apoptotic cell clearance may be a key determinant in the suppression of tissue inflammation and prevention of autoimmunity.

Chromosomal localization of the genes encoding ALDH, BMP-2, R-FABP, IFN-gamma, RXR-gamma, and VIM in chicken by fluorescence in situ hybridization.

Six structural genes encoding ALDH, BMP-2, R-FABP, IFN-gamma, RXR-gamma and VIM were mapped in the chicken by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using genomic and cDNA clones as probes. The genes were found to be located on four different macrochromosomes: chromosome 1 (IFNG and FABP), chromosome 2 (VIM and ALDH), chromosome 3 (BMP2) and a smaller macrochromosome, most probably chromosome 7 (RXRG). With the exception of IFNG none of the newly mapped sites corresponds to known orthologous regions between chicken and human chromosomes.

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein is necessary for efficient IgG-mediated phagocytosis.

Interactions between the Wiskott-Aldrich (WAS) protein (WASp), small GTPases, and the cytoskeletal organizing complex Arp2/3 appear to be critical for the transduction of signals from the cell membrane to the actin cytoskeleton in hematopoietic cells. This study shows that Fcgamma-receptor (FcgammaR)-mediated phagocytosis is impaired in WASp-deficient peripheral blood monocytes, and that in macrophages, formation of the actin cup and local recruitment of tyrosine phosphorylated proteins is markedly attenuated. Results also show that, in normal macrophages, WASp itself is actively recruited to the cup, suggesting that assembly of this specialized cytoskeletal structure is dependent on its expression. (Blood. 2000;95:2943-2946)

Characterization of a chicken retinoid X receptor-gamma gene promoter and identification of sequences that direct expression in retinal cells.

Development of the cellular complexity of the vertebrate neural retina relies on an intricate interplay between extracellular signals and intracellular factors. In particular, transcription factors play a key role in determining the competence of cells to respond to extracellular signals. We have previously shown that, in the developing chick neural retina, expression of the retinoid X receptor-gamma (RXR-gamma2) nuclear receptor gene is restricted to photoreceptors. To characterize the mechanisms that regulate expression of this gene in the neural retina, we isolated a chicken RXR-gamma genomic clone containing the RXR-gamma2 promoter and mapped the transcription initiation site by means of ribonuclease protection. We analysed promoter activity by transient transfection of luciferase reporter gene constructs into cultured cells isolated from embryonic-chick neural retina or facial mesenchyme, which does not normally express detectable RXR-gamma2 transcripts. The DNA fragment lying between nucleotides -657 and +37 with respect to the transcription initiation site had basal promoter activity in both cell types. The fragment lying between nucleotides -1198 and -991 directed 10-20-fold higher levels of luciferase activity in neural retina cells, but only basal levels in facial mesenchyme cells. This 208 bp fragment also enhanced the activity of the simian-virus-40 promoter, when placed upstream in either orientation. Electrophoretic-mobility-shift assays using this 208 bp fragment demonstrated the formation of four neural retina-specific protein-DNA complexes. These results indicate that regulation of RXR-gamma2 transcription in the developing chick neural retina involves the binding of one or more neural retina-specific protein factors to an enhancer element located approx. 1 kbp upstream of the transcription initiation site.

Interaction between Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (WASP) and the Fyn protein-tyrosine kinase.

Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome (WAS) is a severe X-linked disorder characterised by immune deficiency, thrombocytopenia and eczema, resulting from abnormalities in a range of haematopoietic cell types. The protein that is defective in WAS, named WASP, appears to be involved in regulating changes in the cytoskeletal organisation of haematopoietic cells in response to external stimuli. In support of this idea, WASP has been found to be physically associated in haematopoietic cells in vivo with a number of SH3 domain-containing proteins involved in signal transduction, including the cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase Fyn. Here, we have used a baculovirus expression system to explore the biochemical consequences of the interaction between WASP and Fyn. We find that the kinase activity of Fyn is stimulated as a result of binding to WASP, and that a cellular protein, which may be WASP itself, becomes phosphorylated on tyrosine as a result of the binding of WASP to Fyn.

Loss of heterozygosity and microsatellite instability at the MLL locus are common in childhood acute leukemia, but not in infant acute leukemia.

Rearrangements involving the MLL gene at chromosome 11q23 are associated with leukemia and are present in up to 70% of infant leukemias. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) has been shown for anonymous polymorphic markers at 11q23 in adult leukemias. To study LOH at the MLL locus, we have identified two new polymorphic microsatellite markers: a GAA repeat (mllGAAn) in intron 6 of the MLL gene and a GA (mllGAn) repeat in the 5' flanking region of the gene, approximately 2 kb upstream of the translation initiation codon. The heterozygosity index of mllGAAn is 0.54, which renders it useful for analyzing LOH. We screened two groups of leukemia patients to study LOH at the mllGAAn marker. Group A (n = 18) was selected on the basis of presentation before 18 months. Cytogenetic and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that 9 of these 18 children had translocations involving MLL. No LOH was observed. Group B (n = 36) were randomly selected children who had presented with leukemia between 1993 and 1994. Cytogenetic analysis of this group showed a variety of different chromosomal abnormalities. LOH was shown in 9 of 20 individuals (45%) who were informative. Microsatellite instability (MSI) was demonstrated in 1 of 18 individuals in group A and 5 of 36 individuals (13.9%) in group B. MSI and LOH were observed simultaneously in three individuals. Loss of an allele was confirmed in one individual by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Individuals with MSI or LOH at mllGAAn were selected for analysis at anonymous polymorphic markers D11S1364 and D11S1356, which flank the MLL gene. No LOH or MSI was observed at these markers in those individuals who were informative. These results show that LOH at the MLL gene locus is a common event during leukemogenesis. Furthermore, the presence of MSI at this locus suggests that the region is a hotspot for genetic instability.

Detailed characterization of the human aorta-gonad-mesonephros region reveals morphological polarity resembling a hematopoietic stromal layer.

The definitive long-term repopulating human hematopoietic stem cell, which seeds the adult blood system, was previously thought to derive from the extra-embryonic yolk sac. However, there is now considerable evidence that in both avian and murine systems, yolk sac hematopoietic cells are largely a transient, embryonic population and the definitive stem cell, in fact, derives from a distinct region within the embryonic mesoderm, the aorta-gonad-mesonephros region. In the human embryo, an analogous region has been found to contain a cluster of cells distinct from, but closely associated with, the ventral endothelium of the dorsal aorta, the appearance of which is restricted both spatially and temporally. We have used antibodies recognising hematopoietic regulatory factors to further characterise this region in the human embryo. These studies indicate that all factors examined, including vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptor FLK-1, Flt-3 ligand and its receptor STK-1, and stem cell leukemia transcription factor, are expressed by both hematopoietic cells in the cluster and endothelial cells. However, there is some discontinuity in cells directly underlying the cluster. Furthermore, we have identified a morphologically distinct region of densely-packed, rounded cells in the mesenchyme directly beneath the ventral wall of the dorsal aorta, and running along its entire length. In the preumbilical AGM region, directly underlying the hematopoietic cluster, but not at more rostral and caudal levels, this region of mesenchyme expresses tenascin-C, an extracellular matrix glycoprotein known to facilitate cell-cell interactions and migration. This region of cells may therefore provide the microenvironmental support for the intraembryonic development of definitive hematopoietic stem cells, a process in which tenascin-C may play a pivotal role.

An investigation of the t(12;21) rearrangement in children with B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia using cytogenetic and molecular methods.

The t(12;21) is the commonest recurrent translocation in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL), the presence of which has been suggested to be a good prognostic feature. We have studied 22 childhood cases of B-precursor ALL with this rearrangement, and have found no significant differences in event-free survival between these and a control group of patients with similar phenotypes. Using a variety of cytogenetic and molecular techniques, we have confirmed a strong association with co-expression of myeloid markers, frequent deletions of the short-arm of the untranslocated chromosome 12 homologue and duplication of the derivative chromosome 21. Intragenic deletion of the untranslocated ETV6 gene in 3/12 informative patients points to the likelihood of this gene being a target for deletion.

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein, WASP.

Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (WASP) is the product of the gene mutated in children with Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome (WAS). It is a predominantly cytoplasmic protein, expressed only in haematopoietic cells. It binds in vivo to the adaptor proteins Nck and Grb2, to the cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase Fyn and to the small Rho-like GTPase Cdc42, which is required for formation of filopodia in fibroblasts and macrophages. WASP also interacts, directly or indirectly, with the actin cytoskeleton. Together with studies of a closely related, ubiquitously expressed protein named N-WASP, these findings suggest that WASP is a component of signalling pathways that control reorganisation of the actin cytoskeleton in haematopoietic cells in response to external stimuli. In support of this idea, haematopoietic cells from WAS patients show defects in cytoskeletal organisation that compromise their ability to polarise and to migrate in response to physiological stimuli. These defects could account for many of the clinical features of WAS. WAS is now a candidate for gene therapy based on the delivery of a wild-type WASP gene to autologous haematopoietic stem cells. In addition, recent studies of cell defects in WAS patients suggest that it may prove possible, in time, to rescue WAS cells using more conventional drug therapies.

Expression of Drosophila trithorax-group homologues in chick embryos.

Mll, Brg1 and Brm are vertebrate homologues of Drosophila trithorax group (trxG) genes. We isolated chicken Mll cDNA clones, and examined patterns of Mll, Brg1 and Brm expression in chick embryos. All three genes were expressed from embryonic stage 2 onwards. Mll transcripts were just detectable in all tissues by in situ hybridization, with highest level in dorsal neural tube and notochord. Brg1 transcripts were readily detectable in all tissues, with highest levels in dorsal neural tube, dorsal trunk epithelium and limb bud epithelium and mesenchyme. Brm transcripts were more restricted, being found in dermomyotome, notochord, dorsal limb bud epithelium, eye and the roof and floor plates of the neural tube.

Intrinsic dendritic cell abnormalities in Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome.

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) is an X-linked disorder characterized by immune deficiency, eczema, and microthrombocytopenia. Biochemical evidence indicates that the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) is involved in regulating the actin cytoskeleton. Here we report that WAS dendritic cells (DC) have an immunophenotype very similar to normal DC. However, as a consequence of an intrinsically abnormal cytoarchitecture, they are unable to polarize normally and have severely reduced translocational motility in vitro. These findings indicate that WASp is an essential effector for Cdc-42-mediated polarization of primary hematopoietic cells, and suggest that a significant component of the clinical phenotype of WAS could arise from peripheral DC dysmotility and aberrant immune cell trafficking in vivo. Intrinsic dysfunction of the DC population may also have an important role in the pathogenesis of other primary immunodeficiency syndromes, while induced changes in DC cytoskeletal signaling pathways may contribute to the initiation of acquired immunological and inflammatory disorders.

The rodent non-genotoxic hepatocarcinogen nafenopin suppresses apoptosis preferentially in non-cycling hepatocytes but also elevates CDK4, a cell cycle progression factor.

Rodent non-genotoxic hepatocarcinogens such as nafenopin suppress spontaneous and transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1)-induced rat hepatocyte apoptosis as well as inducing DNA synthesis. We wished to determine if these two processes are associated. In primary rat hepatocytes, nafenopin suppressed apoptosis from 1.9 to 0.63% but more apoptotic bodies were bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-labelled (0.35%) than predicted statistically from a random distribution of apoptosis within the cycling and non-cycling populations (0.10%). In contrast, TGFbeta1 induced hepatocyte apoptosis (7.8%) but fewer hepatocytes were BrdU-labelled (0.29%) than predicted (0.82%). Western blot analyses showed that nafenopin and TGFbeta1 had opposing effects on cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) protein: nafenopin elevated CDK4 compared with controls, whereas TGFbeta1 caused a reduction. These data suggest that non-genotoxic hepatocarcinogens suppress apoptosis in the non-cycling population of hepatocytes and elevate CDK4 levels, possibly allowing potentially tumourigenic cells to enter the cell cycle.

Initial retinoid requirement for early avian development coincides with retinoid receptor coexpression in the precardiac fields and induction of normal cardiovascular development.

Vitamin A requirement for early embryonic development is clearly evident in the gross cardiovascular and central nervous system abnormalities and an early death of the vitamin A-deficient quail embryo. This retinoid knockout model system was used to examine the biological activity of various natural retinoids in early cardiovascular development. We demonstrate that all-trans-, 9-cis-, 4-oxo-, and didehydroretinoic acids, and didehydroretinol and all-trans-retinol induce and maintain normal cardiovascular development as well as induce expression of the retinoic acid receptor beta2 in the vitamin A-deficient quail embryo. The expression of RARbeta2 is at the same level and at the same sites where it is expressed in the normal embryo. Retinoids provided to the vitamin A-deficient embryo up to the 5-somite stage of development, but not later, completely rescue embryonic development, suggesting the 5-somite stage as a critical retinoid-sensitive time point during early avian embryogenesis. Retinoid receptors RARalpha, RARgamma, and RXRalpha are expressed in both the precardiac endoderm and mesoderm in the normal and the vitamin A-deficient quail embryo, while the expression of RXRgamma is restricted to precardiac endoderm. Vitamin A deficiency downregulates the expression of RARalpha and RARbeta. Our studies provide strong evidence for a narrow retinoid-requiring developmental window during early embryogenesis, in which the presence of bioactive retinoids and their receptors is essential for a subsequent normal embryonic development.

Retinoid X receptor-gamma gene expression is developmentally regulated in the embryonic rodent peripheral nervous system.

The retinoid X receptor-gamma (RXRgamma) is a transcription factor that belongs to the thyroid hormone/retinoid family of nuclear receptors. Previous studies have shown that RXRgamma is expressed in the developing peripheral nervous system (PNS) of chick embryos, but such expression has not been reported previously in rodent embryos. Indeed, the pattern of RXRgamma expression appears to be different between avian and rodent species. Using in situ hybridisation and northern blot experiments we show that RXRgamma is expressed in elements of the PNS in rat and mouse embryos and in postnatal rats. However, unlike the chick, where RXRgamma is expressed from the onset of neural crest migration, rat RXRgamma expression in the dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia was detectable at 14.5 days post coitum (dpc), but not at 13, 12, or 11 dpc. These data suggest that RXRgamma may have a role in the dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia of late embryos, and that this could be evolutionarily conserved between chick and rodent. On the other hand, rat RXRgamma transcripts in the facio-acoustic (VII-VIII) ganglion were detectable at 11 dpc in neural crest cells condensing to form this ganglion. We discuss the possible significance of the timing of RXRgamma expression in the developing PNS and suggest that closer examination of the structure and function of the PNS of RXRgamma null mutant mice would be of interest.

Chemotaxis of macrophages is abolished in the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome.

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) is a rare disease characterized by microthrombocytopenia, eczema and immune deficiency. In this study a direct-viewing chemotaxis chamber was used to analyse chemotactic responses of WAS neutrophils and macrophages in stable linear concentration gradients. In five patients with classic WAS, chemotaxis of macrophages but not of neutrophils was found to be abolished, whereas the speed of random motility of both cell types was found to be indistinguishable from control cells. This supports the existence of an essential functional link, previously suggested by biochemical studies, between Cdc42, WAS protein (WASp) and the actin cytoskeleton in primary human macrophages. Moreover, these data suggest that Cdc42-WASp-mediated filopodial extension is a requirement for chemotaxis but not for chemokinesis in these cells. Abnormal directional cell motility of macrophages and related antigen-presenting cells may play a significant part in the immune deficiency and eczema of WAS.

Retinoid X receptor gamma gene transcripts are expressed by a subset of early generated retinal cells and eventually restricted to photoreceptors.

We have examined the distribution of the retinoid X receptor gamma (RXRgamma) in the developing chicken retina by using in situ hybridization and RNase protection assays. We detected RXRgamma transcripts as early as 4 days of embryonic development (d4) in central regions of the retina, spreading to more peripheral regions by d8. The first few RXRgamma-positive cells were scattered within the depth of the retinal neuroepithelium, but as they increased in number they became localized predominantly to the apical (outer, ventricular) layer. The identity of the RXRgamma-positive cells at these stages is unknown, due to the lack of cell type-specific markers. By d10, when photoreceptors and ganglion cells have been generated and begun to establish their definitive layers, RXRgamma-positive cells were virtually restricted to the photoreceptor layer, and maintained this distribution to posthatch stages. RNase protection assays were performed on whole retinae to verify the temporal pattern of in situ hybridization results and showed that between d5 and d16 there was a significant increase in the mRNA levels of the RXRgamma2 isoform. Between d16 and early posthatch stages the level of RXRgamma2 mRNA did not change significantly. Consistent with previous studies, mRNA levels of the RXRgamma1 isoform were substantially lower than mRNA levels of the RXRgamma2 isoform at all time points examined. These results demonstrate that RXRgamma mRNA is expressed in photoreceptors in the developing chicken retina and implicate RXRgamma as the earliest marker of photoreceptor differentiation documented to date.