Three-Compartment Body Composition Changes in Professional Rugby Union Players Over One Competitive Season: A Team and Individualized Approach.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the longitudinal body composition of professional rugby union players over one competitive season. Given the potential for variability in changes, and as the first to do so, we conducted individual analysis in addition to analysis of group means. Thirty-five professional rugby union players from one English Premiership team (forwards: n = 20, age: 25.5 ± 4.7 yr; backs: n = 15, age: 26.1 ± 4.5 yr) received one total-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan at preseason (August), midseason (January), and endseason (May), enabling quantification of body mass, total and regional fat mass, lean mass, percentage tissue fat mass (%TFM), and bone mineral content (BMC). Individual analysis was conducted by applying least significant change (LSC), derived from our previously published precision data and in accordance with International Society for Clinical Densitometry guidelines. Mean body mass remained stable throughout the season (p > 0.05), but total fat mass and %TFM increased from pre- to endseason, and from mid- to endseason (p <0.05). There were also statistically significant increases in total-body BMC across the season (p <0.05). In both groups, there was a loss of lean mass between mid- and endseason (p <0.018). Individual evaluation using LSC and Bland-Altman analysis revealed a meaningful loss of lean mass in 17 players and a gain of fat mass in 21 players from pre- to endseason. Twelve players had no change and there were no differences by playing position. There were individual gains or no net changes in BMC across the season for 10 and 24 players, respectively. This study highlights the advantages of an individualized approach to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition monitoring and this can be achieved through application of derived LSC.

Movement and Physiological Demands of Australasian National Rugby League Referees.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the movement and physiological demands of Australasian National Rugby League (NRL) referees, officiating with a 2-referee (ie, lead and pocket) system, and to compare the demands of the lead and pocket referees. METHODS: Global positioning system devices (10 Hz) were used to obtain 86 data sets (lead, n = 41; pocket, n = 45) on 19 NRL referees. Total distance, relative distance covered, and heart rate per half and across match play were examined within and between referees using t tests. Distance, time, and number of movement "efforts" were examined in 6 velocity classifications (ie, standing <0.5, walking 0.51-2.0, jogging 2.01-4.0, running 4.01-5.5, high-speed running 5.51-7.0, and sprinting >7.0 m/s) using analysis of variance. Cohen d effect sizes are reported. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the lead and pocket referees for any movement or physiological variable. There was an overall significant (large, very large) effect for distance (% distance) and time (% time) (P < .001) between velocity classifications for both the lead and pocket referees. Both roles covered the largest distance and number of efforts at velocities of 0.51-2.0 m/s and 2.01-4.0 m/s, which were interspersed with efforts >5.51 m/s. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the intermittent nature of rugby league refereeing but show that there were no differences in the movement and physiological demands of the 2 refereeing roles. Findings are valuable for those responsible for the preparation, training, and conditioning of NRL referees and to ensure that training prepares for and simulates match demands.

Three-Compartment Body Composition in Academy and Senior Rugby League Players.

PURPOSE: To compare the body size and 3-compartment body composition between academy and senior professional rugby league players using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). METHODS: Academy (age 18.1 ± 1.1 y, n = 34) and senior (age 26.2 ± 4.6 y, n = 63) rugby league players received 1 total-body DXA scan. Height, body mass, and body-fat percentage alongside total and regional fat mass, lean mass, and bone mineral content (BMC) were compared. Independent t tests with Cohen d effect sizes and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), controlling for height and body mass, with partial eta-squared (η2) effect sizes, were used to compare total and regional body composition. RESULTS: Senior players were taller (183.2 ± 5.8 vs 179.2 ± 5.7 cm, P = .001, d = 0.70) and heavier (96.5 ± 9.3 vs 86.5 ± 9.0 kg, P < .001, d = 1.09) with lower body-fat percentage (16.3 ± 3.7 vs 18.0 ± 3.7%, P = .032, d = 0.46) than academy players. MANCOVA identified significant overall main effects for total and regional body composition between academy and senior players. Senior players had lower total fat mass (P < .001, η2 = 0.15), greater total lean mass (P < .001, η2 = 0.14), and greater total BMC (P = .001, η2 = 0.12) than academy players. For regional sites, academy players had significantly greater fat mass at the legs (P < .001, η2 = 0.29) than senior players. CONCLUSIONS: The lower age, height, body mass, and BMC of academy players suggest that these players are still developing musculoskeletal characteristics. Gradual increases in lean mass and BMC while controlling fat mass is an important consideration for practitioners working with academy rugby league players, especially in the lower body.

Precision Error in Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry Body Composition Measurements in Elite Male Rugby League Players.

Body composition analysis using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is becoming increasingly popular in both clinical and sports science settings. Obesity, characterized by high fat mass (FM), is associated with larger precision errors; however, precision error for athletic groups with high levels of lean mass (LM) are unclear. Total (TB) and regional (limbs and trunk) body composition were determined from 2 consecutive total body scans (GE Lunar iDXA) with re-positioning in 45 elite male rugby league players (age: 21.8 ± 5.4 yr; body mass index: 27.8 ± 2.5 kg m(-1)). The root mean squared standard deviation (percentage co-efficient of variation) were TB bone mineral content: 24g (1.7%), TB LM: 321 g (1.6%), and TB FM: 280 g (2.3%). Regional precision values were superior for measurements of bone mineral content: 4.7-16.3 g (1.7-2.1%) and LM: 137-402 g (2.0-2.4%), than for FM: 63-299 g (3.1-4.1%). Precision error of DXA body composition measurements in elite male rugby players is higher than those reported elsewhere for normal adult populations and similar to those reported in those who are obese. It is advised that caution is applied when interpreting longitudinal DXA-derived body composition measurements in male rugby players and population-specific least significant change should be adopted.

Physiological and Movement Demands of Rugby League Referees: Influence on Penalty Accuracy.

Research into the physiological and movement demands of Rugby League (RL) referees is limited, with only 1 study in the European Super League (SL). To date, no studies have considered decision making in RL referees. The purpose of this study was to quantify penalty accuracy scores of RL referees and to determine the relationship between penalty accuracy and total distance covered (TD), high-intensity running (HIR), and heart rate per 10-minute period of match play. Time motion analysis was undertaken on 8 referees over 148 European SL games during the 2012 season using 10-Hz global positioning system analysis and heart rate monitors. The number and timing of penalties awarded was quantified using Opta Stats. Referees awarded the correct decision on 74 ± 5% of occasions. Lowest accuracy was observed in the last 10-minute period of the game (67 ± 13%), with a moderate drop (effect size = 0.86) in accuracy observed between 60-70 minutes and 70-80 minutes. Despite this, there were only small correlations observed between mean heart rate, TD, HIR efforts, and penalty accuracy. Although a moderate correlation was observed between maximum velocity and accuracy. Despite only small correlations observed, it would be rash to assume that physiological and movement demands of refereeing have no influence on decision making. More likely, other confounding variables influence referee decision-making accuracy, requiring further investigation. Findings can be used by referees and coaches to inform training protocols, ensuring training is specific to both cognitive and physical match demands.

Insights into relationships between body mass, composition and bone: findings in elite rugby players.

Recent reports indicate that bone strength is not proportional to body weight in obese populations. Elite rugby players have a similar body mass index (BMI) to obese individuals but differ markedly with low body fat, high lean mass, and frequent skeletal exposure to loading through weight-bearing exercise. The purpose of this study was to determine relationships between body weight, composition, and bone strength in male rugby players characterized by high BMI and high lean mass. Fifty-two elite male rugby players and 32 nonathletic, age-matched controls differing in BMI (30.2 ± 3.2 vs 24.1 ± 2.1 kg/m²; p = 0.02) received 1 total body and one total hip dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan. Hip structural analysis of the proximal femur was used to determine bone mineral density (BMD) and cross-sectional bone geometry. Multiple linear regression was computed to identify independent variables associated with total hip and femoral neck BMD and hip structural analysis-derived bone geometry parameters. Analysis of covariance was used to explore differences between groups. Further comparisons between groups were performed after normalizing parameters to body weight and to lean mass. There was a trend for a positive fat-bone relationship in rugby players, and a negative relationship in controls, although neither reached statistical significance. Correlations with lean mass were stronger for bone geometry (r(2): 0.408-0.520) than for BMD (r(2): 0.267-0.293). Relative to body weight, BMD was 6.7% lower in rugby players than controls (p < 0.05). Rugby players were heavier than controls, with greater lean mass and BMD (p < 0.01). Relative to lean mass, BMD was 10%-14.3% lower in rugby players (p < 0.001). All bone geometry measures except cross-sectional area were proportional to body weight and lean mass. To conclude, BMD in elite rugby players was reduced in proportion to body weight and lean mass. However, their superior bone geometry suggests that overall bone strength may be adequate for loading demands. Fat-bone interactions in athletes engaged in high-impact sports require further exploration.

Case study of a female ocean racer: prerace preparation and nutritional intake during the Vendée Globe 2008.

The Vendée Globe is a solo round-the-world sailing race without stopovers or assistance, a physically demanding challenge for which appropriate nutrition should maintain energy balance and ensure optimum performance. This is an account of prerace nutritional preparation with a professional and experienced female racer and assessment of daily nutritional intake (NI) during the race using a multimethod approach. A daily energy intake (EI) of 15.1 MJ/day was recommended for the race and negotiated down by the racer to 12.7 MJ/day, with carbohydrate and fluid intake goals of 480 g/day and 3,020 ml/day, respectively. Throughout the 99-day voyage, daily NI was recorded using electronic food diaries and inventories piloted during training races. NI was assessed and a postrace interview and questionnaire were used to evaluate the intervention. Fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) were assessed pre- (37 days) and postrace (11 days) using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and body mass was measured before the racer stepped on the yacht and immediately postrace. Mean EI was 9.2 MJ/day (2.4-14.3 MJ/day), representing a negative energy balance of 3.5 MJ/day under the negotiated EI goal, evidenced by a 7.9-kg loss of body mass (FM -7.5 kg, FFM -0.4 kg) during the voyage, with consequent underconsumption of carbohydrate by ~130 g/day. According to the postrace yacht food inventory, self-reported EI was underreported by 7%. This intervention demonstrates the practicality of the NI approach and assessment, but the racer's nutrition strategy can be further improved to facilitate meeting more optimal NI goals for performance and health. It also shows that evaluation of NI is possible in this environment over prolonged periods, which can provide important information for optimizing nutritional strategies for ocean racing.

Using anthropometric and performance characteristics to predict selection in junior UK Rugby League players.

Research examining the factors influencing selection within talented junior Rugby League players is limited. The aims of this study were firstly to determine whether differences existed for anthropometric and performance characteristics between regional and national selection in high performance UK junior Rugby League players, and secondly to identify variables that discriminated between these selection levels. Regional representative (n=1172) selected junior players (aged 13-16 years) undertook an anthropometric and fitness testing battery with players split according to selection level (i.e., national, regional). MANCOVA analyses, with age and maturation controlled, identified national players as having lower sum of 4 skinfolds scores compared to regional players, and also performed significantly better on all physical tests. Stepwise discriminant analysis identified that estimated maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), chronological age, body mass, 20 m sprint, height, sum of 4 skinfolds and sitting height discriminated between selection levels, accounting for 28.7% of the variance. This discriminant analysis corresponded to an overall predictive accuracy of 63.3% for all players. These results indicate that performance characteristics differed between selection levels in junior Rugby League players. However, the small magnitude of difference between selection levels suggests that physical qualities only partially explain higher representative selection. The monitoring and evaluation of such variables, alongside game related performance characteristics, provides greater knowledge and understanding about the processes and consequences of selection, training and performance in youth sport.