Inferring the age and environmental characteristics of fossil sites using citizen science.

Not all fossil sites preserve microfossils that can be extracted using acid digestion, which may leave knowledge gaps regarding a site's age or environmental characteristics. Here we report on a citizen science approach that was developed to identify microfossils in situ on the surface of sedimentary rocks. Samples were collected from McGraths Flat, a recently discovered Miocene rainforest lake deposit located in central New South Wales, Australia. Composed entirely of iron-oxyhydroxide, McGraths Flat rocks cannot be processed using typical microfossil extraction protocols e.g., acid digestion. Instead, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to automatically acquire 25,200 high-resolution images from the surface of three McGraths Flat samples, covering a total area of 1.85 cm2. The images were published on the citizen science portal DigiVol, through which 271 citizen scientists helped to identify 300 pollen and spores. The microfossil information gained in this study is biostratigraphically relevant and can be used to constrain the environmental characteristics of McGraths Flat. Our findings suggest that automated image acquisition coupled with an evaluation by citizen scientists is an effective method of determining the age and environmental characteristics of fossiliferous rocks that cannot be investigated using traditional methods such as acid digestion.

Advanced Dual-Ion Batteries with High-Capacity Negative Electrodes Incorporating Black Phosphorus.

Dual-graphite batteries (DGBs), being an all-graphite-electrode variation of dual-ion batteries (DIBs), have attracted great attention in recent years as a possible low-cost technology for stationary energy storage due to the utilization of inexpensive graphite as a positive electrode (cathode) material. However, DGBs suffer from a low specific energy limited by the capacity of both electrode materials. In this work, a composite of black phosphorus with carbon (BP-C) is introduced as negative electrode (anode) material for DIB full-cells for the first time. The electrochemical behavior of the graphite || BP-C DIB cells is then discussed in the context of DGBs and DIBs using alloying anodes. Mechanistic studies confirm the staging behavior for anion storage in the graphite positive electrode and the formation of lithiated phosphorus alloys in the negative electrode. BP-C containing full-cells demonstrate promising electrochemical performance with specific energies of up to 319 Wh kg-1 (related to masses of both electrode active materials) or 155 Wh kg-1 (related to masses of electrode active materials and active salt), and high Coulombic efficiency. This work provides highly relevant insights for the development of advanced high-energy and safe DIBs incorporating BP-C and other high-capacity alloying materials in their anodes.

Centimetre-scale perovskite solar cells with fill factors of more than 86 per cent.

Owing to rapid development in their efficiency1 and stability2, perovskite solar cells are at the forefront of emerging photovoltaic technologies. State-of-the-art cells exhibit voltage losses3-8 approaching the theoretical minimum and near-unity internal quantum efficiency9-13, but conversion efficiencies are limited by the fill factor (<83%, below the Shockley-Queisser limit of approximately 90%). This limitation results from non-ideal charge transport between the perovskite absorber and the cell's electrodes5,8,13-16. Reducing the electrical series resistance of charge transport layers is therefore crucial for improving efficiency. Here we introduce a reverse-doping process to fabricate nitrogen-doped titanium oxide electron transport layers with outstanding charge transport performance. By incorporating this charge transport material into perovskite solar cells, we demonstrate 1-cm2 cells with fill factors of >86%, and an average fill factor of 85.3%. We also report a certified steady-state efficiency of 22.6% for a 1-cm2 cell (23.33% ± 0.58% from a reverse current-voltage scan).

High resolution 3D mapping of grain kinematics during high temperature sequestration of SO2 from flue gas by carbonate aggregates.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is removed from flue gases prior to discharge into the atmosphere by high temperature sulphation reactions with the mineral calcite (CaCO3) in the form of calcite aggregates such as limestone. The efficiency of this industrial-scale process is constrained by the self-inhibiting growth of anhydrite (CaSO4) along calcite grain boundaries. Using very high resolution X-ray µCT and Scanning Electron Microscopy we show, for the first time, how the sulphation reaction is initiated by the anisotropic thermal expansion of calcite grains to produce high inter-grain permeability. In turn fast gas-solid reaction occurs to produce a network of porous anhydrite layers between grains. Individual calcite grains are then free to rotate and translate with respect to each other as the sulphation reaction proceeds. Grain translations of up to 24 µm and rotations of up to 0.64 degrees have been tracked in samples of a highly compacted calcite aggregate (Carrara Marble) across up to 600,000 grains through heating and cooling cycles during exposure to SO2 gas flow at temperatures from 600 to 750 °C at one atmosphere. Such grain kinematics help to maintain gas phase permeability in the solid reactant and mitigate the inhibitory growth of porous anhydrite on grain boundaries.

Autonomous planning and control of soft untethered grippers in unstructured environments.

The use of small, maneuverable, untethered and reconfigurable robots could provide numerous advantages in various micromanipulation tasks. Examples include microassembly, pick-and-place of fragile micro-objects for lab-on-a-chip applications, assisted hatching for in-vitro fertilization and minimally invasive surgery. This study assesses the potential of soft untethered magnetic grippers as alternatives or complements to conventional tethered or rigid micromanipulators. We demonstrate closed-loop control of untethered grippers and automated pick-and-place of biological material on porcine tissue in an unstructured environment. We also demonstrate the ability of the soft grippers to recognize and sort non-biological micro-scale objects. The fully autonomous nature of the experiments is made possible by the integration of planning and decision-making algorithms, as well as by closed-loop temperature and electromagnetic motion control. The grippers are capable of completing pick-and-place tasks of biological material at an average velocity of 1.8 ±0.71 mm/s and a drop-off error of 0.62 ±0.22 mm. Color-sensitive sorting of three micro-scale objects is completed at a velocity of 1.21 ±0.68 mm/s and a drop-off error of 0.85 ±0.41 mm. Our findings suggest that improved autonomous untethered grippers could augment the capabilities of current soft-robotic instruments especially in advancedtasks involving manipulation.

Control of Untethered Soft Grippers for Pick-and-Place Tasks.

In order to handle complex tasks in hard-to-reach environments, small-scale robots have to possess suitable dexterous and untethered control capabilities. The fabrication and manipulation of soft, small-scale grippers complying to these requirements is now made possible by advances in material science and robotics. In this paper, we use soft, small-scale grippers to demonstrate pick-and-place tasks. The precise remote control is obtained by altering both the magnetic field gradient and the temperature in the workspace. This allows us to regulate the position and grasping configuration of the soft thermally-responsive hydrogel-nanoparticle composite magnetic grippers. The magnetic closed-loop control achieves precise localization with an average region-of-convergence of the gripper of 0.12±0.05 mm. The micro-sized payload can be placed with a positioning error of 0.57±0.33 mm. The soft grippers move with an average velocity of 0.72±0.13 mm/s without a micro-sized payload, and at 1.09±0.07 mm/s with a micro-sized payload.

Hydrothermal synthesis, structure investigation, and oxide ion conductivity of mixed Si/Ge-based apatite-type phases.

Apatite-type oxides ([A(I)4][A(II)6][(BO4)6]O2), particularly those of the rare-earth silicate and germanate systems, are among the more promising materials being considered as alternative solid oxide fuel cell electrolytes. Nonstoichiometric lanthanum silicate and germanate apatites display pure ionic conductivities exceeding those of yttria-stabilized zirconia at moderate temperatures (500-700 °C). In this study, mixed Si/Ge-based apatites were prepared by hydrothermal synthesis under mild conditions rather than the conventional solid-state method at high temperatures. Single-phase and highly crystalline nanosized apatite powders were obtained with the morphology changing across the series from spheres for the Si-based end member to hexagonal rods for the Ge-based end member. Powder X-ray and neutron analysis found all of these apatites to be hexagonal (P63/m). Quantitative X-ray microanalysis established the partial (<15 at%) substitution of La(3+) by Na(+) (introduced from the NaOH hydrothermal reagent), which showed a slight preference to enter the A(I) 4f framework position over the A(II) 6h tunnel site. Moreover, retention of hydroxide (OH(-)) was confirmed by IR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis, and these apatites are best described as oxyhydroxyapatites. To prepare dense pellets for conductivity measurements, both conventional heat treatment and spark plasma sintering methods were compared, with the peculiar features of hydrothermally synthesized apatites and the influence of sodium on the ionic conductivity considered.

Electron-pinned defect-dipoles for high-performance colossal permittivity materials.

The immense potential of colossal permittivity (CP) materials for use in modern microelectronics as well as for high-energy-density storage applications has propelled much recent research and development. Despite the discovery of several new classes of CP materials, the development of such materials with the required high performance is still a highly challenging task. Here, we propose a new electron-pinned, defect-dipole route to ideal CP behaviour, where hopping electrons are localized by designated lattice defect states to generate giant defect-dipoles and result in high-performance CP materials. We present a concrete example, (Nb+In) co-doped TiO2 rutile, that exhibits a largely temperature- and frequency-independent colossal permittivity (> 10(4)) as well as a low dielectric loss (mostly < 0.05) over a very broad temperature range from 80 to 450 K. A systematic defect analysis coupled with density functional theory modelling suggests that 'triangular' In2(3+)Vo(••)Ti(3+) and 'diamond' shaped Nb2(5+)Ti(3+)A(Ti) (A = Ti(3+)/In(3+)/Ti(4+)) defect complexes are strongly correlated, giving rise to large defect-dipole clusters containing highly localized electrons that are together responsible for the excellent CP properties observed in co-doped TiO2. This combined experimental and theoretical work opens up a promising feasible route to the systematic development of new high-performance CP materials via defect engineering.

Comparison of mineral trioxide aggregate's composition with Portland cements and a new endodontic cement.

The aim of this study was to compare the compositions of mineral trioxide aggregates (MTAs), Portland cements (PCs), and a new endodontic cement (NEC). Our study also investigated the surface characteristics of MTA and NEC root-end fillings when immersed in normal saline. For part I, we prepared samples of 9 brands of MTAs, PCs, and NEC. The materials were imaged and analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDXA). In part II, 3-mm-deep root-end preparations were filled with MTA or NEC and stored in normal saline for 1 week. Samples were imaged and analyzed by SEM and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). EDXA investigations revealed differences in the dominant compounds of NEC, PCs, and MTAs. The major components of MTA and PC are the same except for bismuth. The most significant difference was the presence of higher concentrations of Fe (minor element) in gray MTA and PC when compared with white ones. EPMA results revealed remarkably different elements in MTA compared with surrounding dentin, whereas in the NEC group the distribution patterns of calcium, phosphorous, and oxygen were comparable. NEC differs chemically from MTAs and PCs and demonstrates comparable surface composition with adjacent dentin as a root-end filling material.

A qualitative X-ray analysis of white and grey mineral trioxide aggregate using compositional imaging.

Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) is used in endodontics as a filling and sealant material. An earlier commercial formulation Grey MTA (GMTA) was liable to became progressively discoloured, and a whiter version (WMTA) has been introduced for cosmetic reasons. This study compares the composition and particle size distribution of the two formulations using energy dispersive X-ray analysis in a scanning electron microscope. Particle size is smaller in WMTA. X-ray analysis reveals similar major peaks (calcium, silicon and bismuth) but those of the minor elements aluminium, magnesium and particularly iron are considerably less in WMTA, which may account for the colour difference. Neither contains phosphorus, a major constituent of the original formulation.

Chemical differences between white and gray mineral trioxide aggregate.

The purpose of this research was to determine and compare the composition of white mineral trioxide aggregate and gray mineral trioxide aggregate. Electron probe microanalysis results indicated that lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), and bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) were the dominant compounds in each case and were present at comparable levels in either of the types of mineral trioxide aggregate analyzed. It was concluded that the most significant differences observed were between the measured concentrations of Al2O3 (+122%), MgO (+130%), and especially FeO (+1000%) when gray mineral trioxide aggregate was compared with white mineral trioxide aggregate.

A comparative study of white mineral trioxide aggregate and white Portland cements using X-ray microanalysis.

The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the composition of white mineral trioxide aggregate (WMTA) and two different white Portland cements (WPCs). Samples of WMTA and WPCs were prepared and then imaged in a JEOL JSM6400 scanning electron microscope, equipped with an Oxford Instruments light element energy dispersive spectrometer detector for determining the elemental composition. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) results indicated that lime (CaO) and silica (SiO2) were the dominant compounds in each case. The results showed that the trace elements are similar in all of the samples but there was no detectable trace of bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) in WPCs. The range of crystal sizes observed in WMTA was found to be distinctly smaller than those observed in the WPCs. It was concluded that there is no significant difference between the dominant compounds in both WMTA and WPCs except the presence of bismuth oxide in WMTA.