Proportion of Antipsychotics with CYP2D6 Pharmacogenetic (PGx) Associations Prescribed in an Early Intervention in Psychosis (EIP) Cohort: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Prescribing drugs for psychosis (antipsychotics) is challenging due to high rates of poor treatment outcomes, which are in part explained by an individual's genetics. Pharmacogenomic (PGx) testing can help clinicians tailor the choice or dose of psychosis drugs to an individual's genetics, particularly psychosis drugs with known variable response due to CYP2D6 gene variants ('CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotics'). AIMS: This study aims to investigate differences between demographic groups prescribed 'CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotics' and estimate the proportion of patients eligible for PGx testing based on current pharmacogenomics guidance. METHODS: A cross-sectional study took place extracting data from 243 patients' medical records to explore psychosis drug prescribing, including drug transitions. Demographic data such as age, sex, ethnicity, and clinical sub-team were collected and summarised. Descriptive statistics explored the proportion of 'CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotic' prescribing and the nature of transitions. We used logistic regression analysis to investigate associations between demographic variables and prescription of 'CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotic' versus 'non-CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotic'. RESULTS: Two-thirds (164) of patients had been prescribed a 'CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotic' (aripiprazole, risperidone, haloperidol or zuclopenthixol). Over a fifth (23%) of patients would have met the suggested criteria for PGx testing, following two psychosis drug trials. There were no statistically significant differences between age, sex, or ethnicity in the likelihood of being prescribed a 'CYP2D6-PGx antipsychotic'. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated high rates of prescribing 'CYP2D6-PGx-antipsychotics' in an EIP cohort, providing a rationale for further exploration of how PGx testing can be implemented in EIP services to personalise the prescribing of drugs for psychosis.

16p11.2 deletion mice exhibit compromised fronto-temporal connectivity, GABAergic dysfunction, and enhanced attentional ability.

Autism spectrum disorders are more common in males, and have a substantial genetic component. Chromosomal 16p11.2 deletions in particular carry strong genetic risk for autism, yet their neurobiological impact is poorly characterised, particularly at the integrated systems level. Here we show that mice reproducing this deletion (16p11.2 DEL mice) have reduced GABAergic interneuron gene expression (decreased parvalbumin mRNA in orbitofrontal cortex, and male-specific decreases in Gad67 mRNA in parietal and insular cortex and medial septum). Metabolic activity was increased in medial septum, and in its efferent targets: mammillary body and (males only) subiculum. Functional connectivity was altered between orbitofrontal, insular and auditory cortex, and between septum and hippocampus/subiculum. Consistent with this circuit dysfunction, 16p11.2 DEL mice showed reduced prepulse inhibition, but enhanced performance in the continuous performance test of attentional ability. Level 1 autistic individuals show similarly heightened performance in the equivalent human test, also associated with parietal, insular-orbitofrontal and septo-subicular dysfunction. The data implicate cortical and septal GABAergic dysfunction, and resulting connectivity changes, as the cause of pre-attentional and attentional changes in autism.

What Are the Barriers and Enablers to the Implementation of Pharmacogenetic Testing in Mental Health Care Settings?

In psychiatry, the selection of antipsychotics and antidepressants is generally led by a trial-and-error approach. The prescribing of these medications is complicated by sub-optimal efficacy and high rates of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). These both contribute to poor levels of adherence. Pharmacogenetics (PGx) considers how genetic variation can influence an individual's response to a drug. Pharmacogenetic testing is a tool that could aid clinicians when selecting psychotropic medications, as part of a more personalized approach to prescribing. This may improve the use of and adherence to these medications. Yet to date, the implementation of PGx in mental health environments in the United Kingdom has been slow. This review aims to identify the current barriers and enablers to the implementation of PGx in psychiatry and determine how this can be applied to the uptake of PGx by NHS mental health providers. A systematic searching strategy was developed, and searches were carried out on the PsychInfo, EmBase, and PubMed databases, yielding 11 appropriate papers. Common barriers to the implementation of PGx included cost, concerns over incorporation into current workflow and a lack of knowledge about PGx; whilst frequent enablers included optimism that PGx could lead to precision medicine, reduce ADRs and become a more routine part of psychiatric clinical care. The uptake of PGx in psychiatric care settings in the NHS should consider and overcome these barriers, while looking to capitalize on the enablers identified in this review.

Sex differences in the transcription of monoamine transporters in major depression.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence indicates that reduced activity within the monoamine systems contributes to the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) and suicide. In this study, we have tested the hypothesis that monoaminergic gene transcription is abnormally regulated in MDD and suicide. METHODS: The transcription of specific monoaminergic genes was quantified by qPCR in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of postmortem MDD subjects (n = 80) and non-psychiatric controls (CTRL, n = 32). We measured transcripts encoding monoaminergic transporters (the serotonin transporter (SERT), norepinephrine transporter (NET), dopamine transporter (DAT), plasma monoamine transporter (PMAT), vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)) in addition to the tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) enzymes, TPH1 and TPH2. We tested for transcriptional differences between diagnostic groups and tested for differences in the depressed suicides. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis of monoaminergic gene transcription revealed a sex by diagnosis interaction (F8,99 = 2.87, p = 0.007). We report lower VMAT1 and PMAT expression in depressed males, and conversely higher VMAT2, TPH2 and NET expression in depressed females, relative to controls of the same sex (p < 0.05). We did not detect differences in monoamine gene transcription between the depressed suicides and depressed non-suicides. LIMITATIONS: Gene expression measures were not associated with the presence of antidepressant medication. Nevertheless, to minimize the impact of medication status and other potential confounding variables, these were included as covariates in our analyses. CONCLUSIONS: We report sex differences in the transcription of monoaminergic genes in the DLPFC in MDD. Therefore abnormalities of monoaminergic gene expression may contribute to altered DLPFC activity exhibited in major depression.

Drug-responsive autism phenotypes in the 16p11.2 deletion mouse model: a central role for gene-environment interactions.

There are no current treatments for autism, despite its high prevalence. Deletions of chromosome 16p11.2 dramatically increase risk for autism, suggesting that mice with an equivalent genetic rearrangement may offer a valuable model for the testing of novel classes of therapeutic drug. 16p11.2 deletion (16p11.2 DEL) mice and wild-type controls were assessed using an ethological approach, with 24 h monitoring of activity and social interaction of groups of mice in a home-cage environment. The ability of the excitation/inhibition modulator N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) and the 5-HT1B/1D/1F receptor agonist eletriptan to normalise the behavioural deficits observed was tested. 16p11.2 DEL mice exhibited largely normal behaviours, but, following the stress of an injection, showed hyperlocomotion, reduced sociability, and a strong anxiolytic phenotype. The hyperactivity and reduced sociability, but not the suppressed anxiety, were effectively attenuated by both NAC and eletriptan. The data suggest that 16p11.2 DEL mice show an autism-relevant phenotype that becomes overt after an acute stressor, emphasising the importance of gene-environmental interactions in phenotypic analysis. Further, they add to an emerging view that NAC, or 5-HT1B/1D/1F receptor agonist treatment, may be a promising strategy for further investigation as a future treatment.

16p11 Duplication Disrupts Hippocampal-Orbitofrontal-Amygdala Connectivity, Revealing a Neural Circuit Endophenotype for Schizophrenia.

Chromosome 16p11.2 duplications dramatically increase risk for schizophrenia, but the mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we show that mice with an equivalent genetic mutation (16p11.2 duplication mice) exhibit impaired hippocampal-orbitofrontal and hippocampal-amygdala functional connectivity. Expression of schizophrenia-relevant GABAergic cell markers (parvalbumin and calbindin) is selectively decreased in orbitofrontal cortex, while somatostatin expression is decreased in lateral amygdala. When 16p11.2 duplication mice are tested in cognitive tasks dependent on hippocampal-orbitofrontal connectivity, performance is impaired in an 8-arm maze "N-back" working memory task and in a touchscreen continuous performance task. Consistent with hippocampal-amygdala dysconnectivity, deficits in ethologically relevant social behaviors are also observed. Overall, the cellular/molecular, brain network, and behavioral alterations markedly mirror those observed in schizophrenia patients. Moreover, the data suggest that 16p11.2 duplications selectively impact hippocampal-amygdaloid-orbitofrontal circuitry, supporting emerging ideas that dysfunction in this network is a core element of schizophrenia and defining a neural circuit endophenotype for the disease.

Downregulation of the Central Noradrenergic System by Toxoplasma gondii Infection.

Toxoplasma gondii is associated with physiological effects in the host. Dysregulation of catecholamines in the central nervous system has previously been observed in chronically infected animals. In the study described here, the noradrenergic system was found to be suppressed with decreased levels of norepinephrine (NE) in brains of infected animals and in infected human and rat neural cells in vitro The mechanism responsible for the NE suppression was found to be downregulation of dopamine ß-hydroxylase (DBH) gene expression, encoding the enzyme that synthesizes norepinephrine from dopamine, with downregulation observed in vitro and in infected brain tissue, particularly in the dorsal locus coeruleus/pons region. The downregulation was sex specific, with males expressing reduced DBH mRNA levels whereas females were unchanged. Rather, DBH expression correlated with estrogen receptor in the female rat brains for this estrogen-regulated gene. DBH silencing was not a general response of neurons to infection, as human cytomegalovirus did not downregulate DBH expression. The noradrenergic-linked behaviors of sociability and arousal were altered in chronically infected animals, with a high correlation between DBH expression and infection intensity. A decrease in DBH expression in noradrenergic neurons can elevate dopamine levels, which provides a possible explanation for mixed observations of changes in this neurotransmitter with infection. Decreased NE is consistent with the loss of coordination and motor impairments associated with toxoplasmosis. Further, the altered norepinephrine synthesis observed here may, in part, explain behavioral effects of infection and associations with mental illness.

Sex differences in GABAergic gene expression occur in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia.

GABAergic dysfunction has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In this study, we analyzed the expression levels of several GABAergic genes in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of postmortem subjects with schizophrenia (n=21) and a comparison group of individuals without a history of psychiatric illness (n=18). Our analyses revealed a significant sex by diagnosis effect, along with significant differences in GABAergic gene expression based on medication status. Analyses revealed that in male groups, the expression of GABAergic genes was generally lower in schizophrenia cases compared to the controls, with significantly lower expression levels of GABA-Aα5, GABA-Aß1, and GABA-Aε. In females, the expression of GABAergic genes was higher in the schizophrenia cases, with significantly higher expression of the GABA-Aß1 and GAD67 genes. Analysis of the effect of medication in the schizophrenia subjects revealed significantly higher expression of GABA-Aα1-3, GABA-Aß2, GABA-Aγ2, and GAD67 in the medicated group compared to the unmedicated group. These data show that sex differences in the expression of GABAergic genes occur in the ACC in schizophrenia. Therefore, our data support previous findings of GABAergic dysfunction in schizophrenia and emphasize the importance of considering sex in analyses of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Sex differences in the GABAergic regulation of ACC function may contribute to the differences observed in the symptoms of male and female patients with schizophrenia. In addition, our findings indicate that antipsychotic medications may alter GABAergic signaling in the ACC, supporting the potential of GABAergic targets for the development of novel antipsychotic medication.

Toxoplasma gondii infection and behaviour - location, location, location?

Parasite location has been proposed as an important factor in the behavioural changes observed in rodents infected with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. During the chronic stages of infection, encysted parasites are found in the brain but it remains unclear whether the parasite has tropism for specific brain regions. Parasite tissue cysts are found in all brain areas with some, but not all, prior studies reporting higher numbers located in the amygdala and frontal cortex. A stochastic process of parasite location does not, however, seem to explain the distinct and often subtle changes observed in rodent behaviour. One factor that could contribute to the specific changes is increased dopamine production by T. gondii. Recently, it was found that cells encysted with parasites in the brains of experimentally infected rodents have high levels of dopamine and that the parasite encodes a tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of this neurotransmitter. A mechanism is proposed that could explain the behaviour changes due to parasite regulation of dopamine. This could have important implications for T. gondii infections in humans.

Toxoplasma gondii infection, from predation to schizophrenia: can animal behaviour help us understand human behaviour?

We examine the role of the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii as a manipulatory parasite and question what role study of infections in its natural intermediate rodent hosts and other secondary hosts, including humans, may elucidate in terms of the epidemiology, evolution and clinical applications of infection. In particular, we focus on the potential association between T. gondii and schizophrenia. We introduce the novel term 'T. gondii-rat manipulation-schizophrenia model' and propose how future behavioural research on this model should be performed from a biological, clinical and ethically appropriate perspective.

Expression of kinase interacting with stathmin (KIS, UHMK1) in human brain and lymphoblasts: Effects of schizophrenia and genotype.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the gene encoding the serine/threonine kinase KIS (Kinase Interacting with Stathmin, also known as UHMK1) have recently been associated with schizophrenia. As none of the disease associated SNPs are coding, they may confer susceptibility by altering some facet of KIS expression. Here we have characterised the cellular distribution of KIS in human brain using in situ hybridisation and immunohistochemistry, and quantified KIS protein and mRNA in two large brain series to determine if KIS expression is altered in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder or in relation to a schizophrenia-associated SNP (rs7513662). Post-mortem tissue from the superior temporal gyrus of schizophrenia and control subjects, and also dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and cerebellum from schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and control subjects were used. KIS expression was measured by quantitative PCR (mRNA) and immunoautoradiography (protein), and was also quantified by immunoblot in lymphoblast cell lines derived from schizophrenia and control subjects. Our results demonstrate that KIS is expressed in neurons, and its encoded protein is localised to the nucleus and cytoplasm. No difference in KIS expression was found between diagnostic groups, or in the lymphoblast cell lines, and no effect of rs7513662 genotype on KIS expression was found. Hence, these data do not provide support for the hypothesis that altered expression is the mechanism by which genetic variation of KIS may increase susceptibility to schizophrenia, nor evidence that KIS expression is altered in the disease itself, at least in terms of the parameters studied here.

Impaired emotional categorisation in young people at increased familial risk of depression.

Negative biases in emotional information processing are characteristic of patients with acute depression and may persist after clinical recovery. It is not clear, however, whether such biases are present before the onset of the depressive disorder. The aim of the present study was to examine whether young people at risk of depression, by virtue of having a depressed biological parent (FH+), demonstrate negative biases in tasks of emotional facial recognition and emotional categorization. We also assessed whether task performance and the influence of parental depression are modified by allelic variation in the serotonin transporter (5HTT) gene. We found that the FH+ participants did not show evidence of negative biases relative to matched controls. They were, however, significantly slower to perform a task of emotional categorization. 5HTT genotype did not influence emotional processing significantly. We conclude that negative biases in emotional processing do not appear to be present in people with a family history of depression. However, impairment in emotional categorization could identify a high-risk phenotype and may indicate that people at genetic risk of depression have difficulty in using "mood as information".