M1-linked ubiquitination facilitates NF-κB activation and survival during sterile inflammation.

Methionine 1 (M1)-linked ubiquitination plays a key role in the regulation of inflammatory nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signalling and is important for clearance of pathogen infection in Drosophila melanogaster. M1-linked ubiquitin (M1-Ub) chains are assembled by the linear ubiquitin E3 ligase (LUBEL) in flies. Here, we have studied the role of LUBEL in sterile inflammation induced by different types of cellular stresses. We have found that the LUBEL catalyses formation of M1-Ub chains in response to hypoxic, oxidative and mechanical stress conditions. LUBEL is shown to be important for flies to survive low oxygen conditions and paraquat-induced oxidative stress. This protective action seems to be driven by stress-induced activation of the NF-κB transcription factor Relish via the immune deficiency (Imd) pathway. In addition to LUBEL, the intracellular mediators of Relish activation, including the transforming growth factor activating kinase 1 (Tak1), Drosophila inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) Diap2, the IκB kinase γ (IKKγ) Kenny and the initiator caspase Death-related ced-3/Nedd2-like protein (Dredd), but not the membrane receptor peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP)-LC, are shown to be required for sterile inflammatory response and survival. Finally, we showed that the stress-induced upregulation of M1-Ub chains in response to hypoxia, oxidative and mechanical stress is also induced in mammalian cells and protects from stress-induced cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that M1-Ub chains are important for NF-κB signalling in inflammation induced by stress conditions often observed in chronic inflammatory diseases and cancer.

New roles for the de-ubiquitylating enzyme OTUD4 in an RNA-protein network and RNA granules.

Mechanisms that regulate the formation of membrane-less cellular organelles, such as neuronal RNA granules and stress granules, have gained increasing attention over the past years. These granules consist of RNA and a plethora of RNA-binding proteins. Mutations in RNA-binding proteins have been found in neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). By performing pulldown experiments and subsequent mass spectrometry on mouse brain lysates, we discovered that the de-ubiquitylating enzyme OTU domain-containing protein 4 (OTUD4) unexpectedly is part of a complex network of multiple RNA-binding proteins, including core stress granule factors, such as FMRP (also known as FMR1), SMN1, G3BP1 and TIA1. We show that OTUD4 binds RNA, and that several of its interactions with RNA-binding proteins are RNA dependent. OTUD4 is part of neuronal RNA transport granules in rat hippocampal neurons under physiological conditions, whereas upon cellular stress, OTUD4 is recruited to cytoplasmic stress granules. Knockdown of OTUD4 in HeLa cells resulted in defects in stress granule formation and led to apoptotic cell death. Together, we characterize OTUD4 as a new RNA-binding protein with a suggested function in regulation of translation.

TRIAD3/RNF216 E3 ligase specifically synthesises K63-linked ubiquitin chains and is inactivated by mutations associated with Gordon Holmes syndrome.

TRIAD3/RNF216 is a ubiquitin ligase of the RING-in-between-RING family. Recent publications identified TRIAD3 mutations in patients with neurological diseases, including Gordon Holmes syndrome and Huntington-like disorder. To understand the functional relevance of these disease-associated mutations, we have tested the ubiquitin ligase activity of mutated TRIAD3 in vitro. Several of these point mutations completely abrogated TRIAD3's catalytic activity. Using mass spectrometry, we identified new TRIAD3-interacting proteins/substrates from mouse brain lysate, which provide a new link between TRIAD3 and processes involving clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Strikingly, we found that TRIAD3 synthesises specifically lysine-63 (K63)-linked poly-ubiquitin chains in vitro, a chain type that usually plays a role in mediating signalling events rather than triggering proteasomal degradation. Therefore, this finding is of great importance to further understand TRIAD3's cellular role and loss-of-function in disease.

Deregulated Splicing Is a Major Mechanism of RNA-Induced Toxicity in Huntington's Disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, translating into an elongated polyglutamine stretch. In addition to the neurotoxic mutant HTT protein, the mutant CAG repeat RNA can exert toxic functions by trapping RNA-binding proteins. While few examples of proteins that aberrantly bind to mutant HTT RNA and execute abnormal function in conjunction with the CAG repeat RNA have been described, an unbiased approach to identify the interactome of mutant HTT RNA is missing. Here, we describe the analysis of proteins that preferentially bind mutant HTT RNA using a mass spectrometry approach. We show that (I) the majority of proteins captured by mutant HTT RNA belong to the spliceosome pathway, (II) expression of mutant CAG repeat RNA induces mis-splicing in a HD cell model, (III) overexpression of one of the splice factors trapped by mutant HTT ameliorates the HD phenotype in a fly model and (VI) deregulated splicing occurs in human HD brain. Our data suggest that deregulated splicing is a prominent mechanism of RNA-induced toxicity in HD.

M1-linked ubiquitination by LUBEL is required for inflammatory responses to oral infection in Drosophila.

Post-translational modifications such as ubiquitination play a key role in regulation of inflammatory nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signalling. The Drosophila IκB kinase γ (IKKγ) Kenny is a central regulator of the Drosophila Imd pathway responsible for activation of the NF-κB Relish. We found the Drosophila E3 ligase and HOIL-1L interacting protein (HOIP) orthologue linear ubiquitin E3 ligase (LUBEL) to catalyse formation of M1-linked linear ubiquitin (M1-Ub) chains in flies in a signal-dependent manner upon bacterial infection. Upon activation of the Imd pathway, LUBEL modifies Kenny with M1-Ub chains. Interestingly, the LUBEL-mediated M1-Ub chains seem to be targeted both directly to Kenny and to K63-linked ubiquitin chains conjugated to Kenny by DIAP2. This suggests that DIAP2 and LUBEL work together to promote Kenny-mediated activation of Relish. We found LUBEL-mediated M1-Ub chain formation to be required for flies to survive oral infection with Gram-negative bacteria, for activation of Relish-mediated expression of antimicrobial peptide genes and for pathogen clearance during oral infection. Interestingly, LUBEL is not required for mounting an immune response against systemic infection, as Relish-mediated antimicrobial peptide genes can be expressed in the absence of LUBEL during septic injury. Finally, transgenic induction of LUBEL-mediated M1-Ub drives expression of antimicrobial peptide genes and hyperplasia in the midgut in the absence of infection. This suggests that M1-Ub chains are important for Imd signalling and immune responses in the intestinal epithelia, and that enhanced M1-Ub chain formation is able to drive chronic intestinal inflammation in flies.

Ohgata, the Single Drosophila Ortholog of Human Cereblon, Regulates Insulin Signaling-dependent Organismic Growth.

Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate receptor of the E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that is highly conserved in animals and plants. CRBN proteins have been implicated in various biological processes such as development, metabolism, learning, and memory formation, and their impairment has been linked to autosomal recessive non-syndromic intellectual disability and cancer. Furthermore, human CRBN was identified as the primary target of thalidomide teratogenicity. Data on functional analysis of CRBN family members in vivo, however, are still scarce. Here we identify Ohgata (OHGT), the Drosophila ortholog of CRBN, as a regulator of insulin signaling-mediated growth. Using ohgt mutants that we generated by targeted mutagenesis, we show that its loss results in increased body weight and organ size without changes of the body proportions. We demonstrate that ohgt knockdown in the fat body, an organ analogous to mammalian liver and adipose tissue, phenocopies the growth phenotypes. We further show that overgrowth is due to an elevation of insulin signaling in ohgt mutants and to the down-regulation of inhibitory cofactors of circulating Drosophila insulin-like peptides (DILPs), named acid-labile subunit and imaginal morphogenesis protein-late 2. The two inhibitory proteins were previously shown to be components of a heterotrimeric complex with growth-promoting DILP2 and DILP5. Our study reveals OHGT as a novel regulator of insulin-dependent organismic growth in Drosophila.

The de-ubiquitylating enzyme DUBA is essential for spermatogenesis in Drosophila.

De-ubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs) reverse protein ubiquitylation and thereby control essential cellular functions. Screening for a DUB that counteracts caspase ubiquitylation to regulate cell survival, we identified the Drosophila ovarian tumour-type DUB DUBA (CG6091). DUBA physically interacts with the initiator caspase death regulator Nedd2-like caspase (Dronc) and de-ubiquitylates it, thereby contributing to efficient inhibitor of apoptosis-antagonist-induced apoptosis in the fly eye. Searching also for non-apoptotic functions of DUBA, we found that Duba-null mutants are male sterile and display defects in spermatid individualisation, a process that depends on non-apoptotic caspase activity. Spermatids of DUBA-deficient flies showed reduced caspase activity and lack critical structures of the individualisation process. Biochemical characterisation revealed an obligate activation step of DUBA by phosphorylation. With genetic rescue experiments we demonstrate that DUBA phosphorylation and catalytic activity are crucial in vivo for DUBA function in spermatogenesis. Our results demonstrate for the first time the importance of de-ubiquitylation for fly spermatogenesis.

Nerve-racking - apoptotic and non-apoptotic roles of caspases in the nervous system of Drosophila.

Studies using Drosophila as a model system have contributed enormously to our knowledge of caspase function and regulation. Caspases are best known as central executioners of apoptosis but also control essential physiological processes in a non-apoptotic manner. The Drosophila genome codes for seven caspases and in this review we provide an overview of current knowledge about caspase function in the nervous system. Caspases regulate neuronal death at all developmental stages and in various neuronal populations. In contrast, non-apoptotic roles are less well understood. The development of new genetically encoded sensors for caspase activity provides unprecedented opportunities to study caspase function in the nervous system in more detail. In light of these new tools we discuss the potential of Drosophila as a model to discover new apoptotic and non-apoptotic neuronal roles of caspases.

Evolutionary Loss of Activity in De-Ubiquitylating Enzymes of the OTU Family.

Understanding function and specificity of de-ubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs) is a major goal of current research, since DUBs are key regulators of ubiquitylation events and have been shown to be mutated in human diseases. Most DUBs are cysteine proteases, relying on a catalytic triad of cysteine, histidine and aspartate to cleave the isopeptide bond between two ubiquitin units in a poly-ubiquitin chain. We have discovered that the two Drosophila melanogaster homologues of human OTUD4, CG3251 and Otu, contain a serine instead of a cysteine in the catalytic OTU (ovarian tumor) domain. DUBs that are serine proteases instead of cysteine- or metallo-proteases have not been described. In line with this, neither CG3251 nor Otu protein were active to cleave ubiquitin chains. Re-introduction of a cysteine in the catalytic center did not render the enzymes active, indicating that further critical features for ubiquitin binding or cleavage have been lost in these proteins. Sequence analysis of OTUD4 homologues from various other species showed that within this OTU subfamily, loss of the catalytic cysteine has occurred frequently in presumably independent events, as well as gene duplications or triplications, suggesting DUB-independent functions of OTUD4 proteins. Using an in vivo RNAi approach, we show that CG3251 might function in the regulation of Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP)-antagonist-induced apoptosis, presumably in a DUB-independent manner.

Ubiquitin-Mediated Regulation of Cell Death, Inflammation, and Defense of Homeostasis.

Cell death and inflammation are ancient processes of fundamental biological importance in both normal physiology and human disease pathologies. The recent observation that apoptosis regulatory components have dual roles in cell death and inflammation suggests that these proteins function, not primarily to kill, but to coordinate tissue repair and remodeling. This perspective unifies cell death components as positive regulators of tissue repair that replaces malfunctioning or damaged tissues and enhances the resilience of epithelia to insult. It is now recognized that cells that die by apoptosis do not do so silently, but release a variety of paracrine signals to communicate with their cellular environment to ensure tissue regeneration, and wound healing. Moreover, inflammatory signaling pathways, such as those emanating from the TNF receptor or Toll-related receptors, take part in cell competition to eliminate developmentally aberrant clones. Ubiquitylation has emerged as crucial mediator of signal transduction in cell death and inflammation. Here, we focus on recent advances on ubiquitin-mediated regulation of cell death and inflammation, and how this is used to regulate the defense of homeostasis.

Ubiquitylation of the initiator caspase DREDD is required for innate immune signalling.

Caspases have been extensively studied as critical initiators and executioners of cell death pathways. However, caspases also take part in non-apoptotic signalling events such as the regulation of innate immunity and activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). How caspases are activated under these conditions and process a selective set of substrates to allow NF-κB signalling without killing the cell remains largely unknown. Here, we show that stimulation of the Drosophila pattern recognition protein PGRP-LCx induces DIAP2-dependent polyubiquitylation of the initiator caspase DREDD. Signal-dependent ubiquitylation of DREDD is required for full processing of IMD, NF-κB/Relish and expression of antimicrobial peptide genes in response to infection with Gram-negative bacteria. Our results identify a mechanism that positively controls NF-κB signalling via ubiquitin-mediated activation of DREDD. The direct involvement of ubiquitylation in caspase activation represents a novel mechanism for non-apoptotic caspase-mediated signalling.

Drosophila IAP1-mediated ubiquitylation controls activation of the initiator caspase DRONC independent of protein degradation.

Ubiquitylation targets proteins for proteasome-mediated degradation and plays important roles in many biological processes including apoptosis. However, non-proteolytic functions of ubiquitylation are also known. In Drosophila, the inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 (DIAP1) is known to ubiquitylate the initiator caspase DRONC in vitro. Because DRONC protein accumulates in diap1 mutant cells that are kept alive by caspase inhibition ("undead" cells), it is thought that DIAP1-mediated ubiquitylation causes proteasomal degradation of DRONC, protecting cells from apoptosis. However, contrary to this model, we show here that DIAP1-mediated ubiquitylation does not trigger proteasomal degradation of full-length DRONC, but serves a non-proteolytic function. Our data suggest that DIAP1-mediated ubiquitylation blocks processing and activation of DRONC. Interestingly, while full-length DRONC is not subject to DIAP1-induced degradation, once it is processed and activated it has reduced protein stability. Finally, we show that DRONC protein accumulates in "undead" cells due to increased transcription of dronc in these cells. These data refine current models of caspase regulation by IAPs.

The Ripoptosome, a signaling platform that assembles in response to genotoxic stress and loss of IAPs.

A better understanding of the mechanisms through which anticancer drugs exert their effects is essential to improve combination therapies. While studying how genotoxic stress kills cancer cells, we discovered a large ∼2MDa cell death-inducing platform, referred to as "Ripoptosome." It contains the core components RIP1, FADD, and caspase-8, and assembles in response to genotoxic stress-induced depletion of XIAP, cIAP1 and cIAP2. Importantly, it forms independently of TNF, CD95L/FASL, TRAIL, death-receptors, and mitochondrial pathways. It also forms upon Smac-mimetic (SM) treatment without involvement of autocrine TNF. Ripoptosome assembly requires RIP1's kinase activity and can stimulate caspase-8-mediated apoptosis as well as caspase-independent necrosis. It is negatively regulated by FLIP, cIAP1, cIAP2, and XIAP. Mechanistically, IAPs target components of this complex for ubiquitylation and inactivation. Moreover, we find that etoposide-stimulated Ripoptosome formation converts proinflammatory cytokines into prodeath signals. Together, our observations shed new light on fundamental mechanisms by which chemotherapeutics may kill cancer cells.

CARD-mediated autoinhibition of cIAP1's E3 ligase activity suppresses cell proliferation and migration.

E3 ligases mediate the covalent attachment of ubiquitin to target proteins thereby enabling ubiquitin-dependent signaling. Unraveling how E3 ligases are regulated is important because miscontrolled ubiquitylation can lead to disease. Cellular inhibitor of apoptosis (cIAP) proteins are E3 ligases that modulate diverse biological processes such as cell survival, proliferation, and migration. Here, we have solved the structure of the caspase recruitment domain (CARD) of cIAP1 and identified that it is required for cIAP1 autoregulation. We demonstrate that the CARD inhibits activation of cIAP1's E3 activity by preventing RING dimerization, E2 binding, and E2 activation. Moreover, we show that the CARD is required to suppress cell proliferation and migration. Further, CARD-mediated autoregulation is also necessary to maximally suppress caspase-8-dependent apoptosis and vascular tree degeneration in vivo. Taken together, our data reveal mechanisms by which the E3 ligase activity of cIAP1 is controlled, and how its deregulation impacts on cell proliferation, migration and cell survival.

Systematic in vivo RNAi analysis identifies IAPs as NEDD8-E3 ligases.

The intimate relationship between mediators of the ubiquitin (Ub)-signaling system and human diseases has sparked profound interest in how Ub influences cell death and survival. While the consequence of Ub attachment is intensely studied, little is known with regards to the effects of other Ub-like proteins (UBLs), and deconjugating enzymes that remove the Ub or UBL adduct. Systematic in vivo RNAi analysis identified three NEDD8-specific isopeptidases that, when knocked down, suppress apoptosis. Consistent with the notion that attachment of NEDD8 prevents cell death, genetic ablation of deneddylase 1 (DEN1) suppresses apoptosis. Unexpectedly, we find that Drosophila and human inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins can function as E3 ligases of the NEDD8 conjugation pathway, targeting effector caspases for neddylation and inactivation. Finally, we demonstrate that DEN1 reverses this effect by removing the NEDD8 modification. Altogether, our findings indicate that IAPs not only modulate cellular processes via ubiquitylation but also through attachment of NEDD8, thereby extending the complexity of IAP-mediated signaling.

Caspase-mediated cleavage, IAP binding, and ubiquitination: linking three mechanisms crucial for Drosophila NF-kappaB signaling.

Innate immune responses are critical for the immediate protection against microbial infection. In Drosophila, infection leads to the rapid and robust production of antimicrobial peptides through two NF-kappaB signaling pathways-IMD and Toll. The IMD pathway is triggered by DAP-type peptidoglycan, common to most Gram-negative bacteria. Signaling downstream from the peptidoglycan receptors is thought to involve K63 ubiquitination and caspase-mediated cleavage, but the molecular mechanisms remain obscure. We now show that PGN stimulation causes caspase-mediated cleavage of the imd protein, exposing a highly conserved IAP-binding motif (IBM) at its neo-N terminus. A functional IBM is required for the association of cleaved IMD with the ubiquitin E3-ligase DIAP2. Through its association with DIAP2, IMD is rapidly conjugated with K63-linked polyubiquitin chains. These results mechanistically connect caspase-mediated cleavage and K63 ubiquitination in immune-induced NF-kappaB signaling.

Two roles for the Drosophila IKK complex in the activation of Relish and the induction of antimicrobial peptide genes.

The Drosophila NF-kappaB transcription factor Relish is an essential regulator of antimicrobial peptide gene induction after gram-negative bacterial infection. Relish is a bipartite NF-kappaB precursor protein, with an N-terminal Rel homology domain and a C-terminal IkappaB-like domain, similar to mammalian p100 and p105. Unlike these mammalian homologs, Relish is endoproteolytically cleaved after infection, allowing the N-terminal NF-kappaB module to translocate to the nucleus. Signal-dependent activation of Relish, including cleavage, requires both the Drosophila IkappaB kinase (IKK) and death-related ced-3/Nedd2-like protein (DREDD), the Drosophila caspase-8 like protease. In this report, we show that the IKK complex controls Relish by direct phosphorylation on serines 528 and 529. Surprisingly, these phosphorylation sites are not required for Relish cleavage, nuclear translocation, or DNA binding. Instead they are critical for recruitment of RNA polymerase II and antimicrobial peptide gene induction, whereas IKK functions noncatalytically to support Dredd-mediated cleavage of Relish.

Identification of a chemokine receptor profile characteristic for mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma.

Mediastinal large B-cell lymphomas (MLBCLs) are considered as a subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma; however, they exhibit completely different patterns of dissemination. Since they share a number of surface markers with thymic B cells, a close relationship was assumed. MLBCLs arise extranodally within the anterior mediastinum and have a low propensity to metastasize. To address the preferential positioning of MLBCL, we focused on homeostatic chemokines involved in B-cell compartmental homing in secondary lymphoid organs, which are also capable of shaping lymphoid niches in ectopic sites. Here, we applied immunohistochemistry to assess chemokine receptor and ligand expression in situ. Flow cytometry was used to identify the chemokine receptor profile on an MLBCL-derived cell line, Karpas1106 and on thymic B cells. Migration assays were performed to examine functionality of chemokine receptors. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay was applied to score for NF-kappaB activity. Using immunohistochemistry, we obtained an unexpectedly low-expression frequency for the chemokine receptors CXCR5 and CCR7 in primary lesions. Although the mature B-cell marker CCR6 was absent in most cases, the lineage aberrant marker CCR9 emerged in the majority of MLBCL cases. Given the role of NF-kappaB in the transcriptional activation of CCR7, we identified the involvement of the noncanonical activation pathway in MLBCLs. MLBCLs exhibit a diagnostic chemokine receptor profile that is instrumental in the discrimination from diffuse large B-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified and classical Hodgkin lymphoma. Furthermore, we suggest that low-abundance expression of CCR7 and CXCR5 may hinder lymphoma cells from nodal dissemination.

Ubiquitin-mediated regulation of apoptosis.

Ubiquitin is a protein modifier that is conjugated to target proteins either as a single moiety or as polyubiquitin chains. Over the past several years, an increasing number of ubiquitin ligases and ubiquitin-deconjugating enzymes have been identified; these modulate cell survival by degradative and non-degradative means. Mutations that affect ubiquitin-mediated signalling are tightly linked to various human pathologies including tumorigenesis. Unravelling how the ubiquitin-signal is conjugated, edited and 'read' is crucial to understanding cellular processes such as endocytic trafficking, NF-kappaB signalling, gene expression, DNA repair and apoptosis. In this review, we summarize recent advances that start to elucidate how the ubiquitin message is used as a versatile tool to regulate apoptosis, for example in the conjugation of ubiquitin to caspases. This results in steric interference with substrate entry and allosteric conformational impairment of the catalytic pocket of the caspase.

Inactivation of effector caspases through nondegradative polyubiquitylation.

Ubiquitin-mediated inactivation of caspases has long been postulated to contribute to the regulation of apoptosis. However, detailed mechanisms and functional consequences of caspase ubiquitylation have not been demonstrated. Here we show that the Drosophila Inhibitor of Apoptosis 1, DIAP1, blocks effector caspases by targeting them for polyubiquitylation and nonproteasomal inactivation. We demonstrate that the conjugation of ubiquitin to drICE suppresses its catalytic potential in cleaving caspase substrates. Our data suggest that ubiquitin conjugation sterically interferes with substrate entry and reduces the caspase's proteolytic velocity. Disruption of drICE ubiquitylation, either by mutation of DIAP1's E3 activity or drICE's ubiquitin-acceptor lysines, abrogates DIAP1's ability to neutralize drICE and suppress apoptosis in vivo. We also show that DIAP1 rests in an "inactive" conformation that requires caspase-mediated cleavage to subsequently ubiquitylate caspases. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that effector caspases regulate their own inhibition through a negative feedback mechanism involving DIAP1 "activation" and nondegradative polyubiquitylation.