Short communication: Effects of analgesic use postcalving on cow welfare and production.

The aim of this study was to assess the welfare and production of cows given an analgesic drug (carprofen, 1.4 mg/kg i.v.) within 6h after calving. The study was performed in a dairy farm with approximately 1,000 milking cows. Behavior, clinical indices, and production data (milk yield and fertility) of cows treated with carprofen (n = 19) or a placebo (n = 20) were compared. Additionally, differences related to parity (primiparous vs. multiparous) were analyzed. No significant differences were observed in the time of placental expulsion or incidence of clinical disease over the 3 d postpartum, but more animals from the analgesia group were observed eating during the first hours after calving.For unassisted calvings, the rectal temperature 24h postpartum was lower in the cows given analgesic. Total lactation yields at 305 d in milk were higher in the primiparous cows treated with carprofen. Fewer cows were pregnant at 220 d postpartum in the treated group as the use of carprofen increased the time from calving to conception. This study suggests that pain management after parturition leads to earlier feed intake after calving and that this may lead to higher milk yield in first-lactation animals.

Sustainable, efficient livestock production with high biodiversity and good welfare for animals.

What is the future for livestock agriculture in the world? Consumers have concerns about sustainability but many widely used livestock production methods do not satisfy consumers' requirements for a sustainable system. However, production can be sustainable, occurring in environments that: supply the needs of the animals resulting in good welfare, allow coexistence with a wide diversity of organisms native to the area, minimize carbon footprint and provide a fair lifestyle for the people working there. Conservation need not just involve tiny islands of natural vegetation in a barren world of agriculture, as there can be great increases in biodiversity in farmed areas. Herbivores, especially ruminants that consume materials inedible by humans, are important for human food in the future. However, their diet should not be just ground-level plants. Silvopastoral systems, pastures with shrubs and trees as well as herbage, are described which are normally more productive than pasture alone. When compared with widely used livestock production systems, silvopastoral systems can provide efficient feed conversion, higher biodiversity, enhanced connectivity between habitat patches and better animal welfare, so they can replace existing systems in many parts of the world and should be further developed.

Invited review: piglet mortality: management solutions.

Preweaning mortality varies greatly among herds and this is partly attributed to differences in farrowing house management. In this review, we describe the various management strategies than can be adopted to decrease mortality and critically examine the evidence that exists to support their use. First, we consider which management procedures are effective against specific causes of death: intrapartum stillbirth, hypothermia, starvation, disease, crushing, and savaging. The most effective techniques include intervention to assist dystocic sows, measures to prevent and treat sow hypogalactia, good farrowing house hygiene, providing newborn piglets with a warm microenvironment, early fostering of supernumerary piglets, methods that assist small and weak piglets to breathe and obtain colostrum, and intervention to prevent deaths from crushing and savaging. The provision of nest-building material and modifications to the pen to assist the sow when lying down may also be beneficial, but the evidence is less clear. Because most deaths occur around the time of farrowing and during the first few days of life, the periparturient period is a particularly important time for management interventions intended to reduce piglet mortality. A number of procedures require a stockperson to be present during and immediately after farrowing. Second, we consider the benefits of farrowing supervision for preweaning mortality in general, focusing particularly on methods for the treatment of dystocia and programs of piglet care that combine multiple procedures. Third, we discuss the need for good stockmanship if farrowing supervision is to be effective. Stockmanship refers not only to technical skills but also to the manner in which sows are handled because this influences their fearfulness of humans. We conclude that piglet survival can be improved by a range of management procedures, many of which occur in the perinatal period and require the supervision of farrowing by trained staff. Although this incurs additional labor costs, there is some evidence that this can be economically offset by improved piglet survival.

Piglet mortality: the impact of induction of farrowing using prostaglandins and oxytocin.

Induction is usually carried out by administering prostaglandins (prostaglandin F2α or a synthetic analogue). Other hormones, most commonly oxytocin, may also be given. The primary objective is to increase the synchrony of farrowing. This facilitates farrowing supervision, early fostering and 'all in, all out' management of the farrowing house, all of which have the potential to decrease piglet mortality. However, there are also risks, including decreased piglet viability when farrowing is induced too early and an increased probability of dystocia associated with oxytocin use. What are the effects of induction procedures on mortality in pigs? With respect to prostaglandins, studies show that the date of induction and the level of supervision provided are important factors affecting piglet mortality. We recommend administering prostaglandins no earlier than 2d before the expected farrowing date for the herd. Some studies have reported that prostaglandin induction decreases stillbirth and live-born mortality and this is probably due to increased farrowing supervision. The incidence of postpartum dysgalactia syndrome is also decreased in herds with a high prevalence of this condition. Inconsistent effects on the progress of farrowing are reported following the routine administration of oxytocin 20-24h after prostaglandin. Although there is generally no effect on stillbirth rate, dystocia may increase. Earlier administration of low doses may decrease stillbirths, but this requires further research. Carbetocin, a long-acting analogue of oxytocin, is a possible alternative. We recommend that prostaglandin induction be used in conjunction with skilled farrowing supervision to decrease piglet mortality.

A commercial trial evaluating three open water sources for farmed ducks: effects on water usage and water quality.

1. Providing open water to farmed ducks is beneficial for their health and behaviour but, at commercial densities, may also have negative consequences for the health of the ducks, the productivity of the farms and environmental contamination. 2. The current experiment investigated the suitability of three types of open water resources in a commercial setting, assessing their effects on water usage and water quality. The three resources were: narrow troughs (15 cm wide and 8 cm deep), intermediate troughs (20 cm wide and 12 cm deep) and wide troughs (50 cm wide and 8 cm deep). A total of 23 flocks of ducks with a mean size of 4,540 ± 680 individuals and a final stocking density less than 17 kg/m(2) were studied. 3. Intermediate troughs used twice as much water as narrow troughs and wide troughs. Intermediate troughs had the best microbiological water quality, wide troughs had the worst physical and microbiological quality and narrow troughs tended to be intermediate. 4. Open water provision resulted in high water usage, but this might be reduced by further investigating cleaning regimes, ballcock systems and the volumetric capacity of the troughs. It was difficult to maintain good water quality, and more research is needed to investigate the long term effects on productivity and public health.

Effects of hot-iron disbudding, using regional anaesthesia with and without carprofen, on cortisol and behaviour of calves.

The objective of this study was to assess cortisol and behaviour changes in calves hot-iron disbudded after different analgesic protocols. We assessed the response of 27 calves at 1, 3, 6 and 24 h after disbudding with regional anaesthesia (DA), regional anaesthesia plus carprofen (DAC), disbudded only (D) or sham-disbudded (ND). At 1h cortisol was higher in D compared with all other groups. At 3h DA showed higher cortisol than ND but did not differ from baseline. At 15 min and 1h pain-related behaviours were more frequent in the D group than in all other groups. Group D (3 h) and DA (3 and 6 h) showed more ear flicks and head rubs compared with DAC and ND. We concluded that head rubbing, head shaking and ear flicking are useful behaviours for evaluating pain after hot-iron disbudding. Disbudding causes severe pain in calves and only the association of regional anaesthesia with carprofen assures good welfare for 24 h.

A commercial trial evaluating three open water sources for farmed ducks: effects on health and production.

1. The present study investigated the effects on Pekin duck health and production of three open water resources in a commercial setting. The three resources were: narrow troughs (15 cm wide and 8 cm deep), intermediate troughs (20 cm wide and 12 cm deep) and wide troughs (50 cm wide and 8 cm deep). A total of 23 flocks of ducks were investigated, with an average size of 4540 ± 680 individuals and a final stocking density always under 17 kg/m(2). 2. The health of the birds was considered to be of a good standard overall. The only health difference among the resources was that the foot condition of ducks provided with wide troughs was worse than those with intermediate troughs, whilst the foot condition of birds with narrow troughs was intermediate. The open water resources did not differ in their effects on the production measures assessed. 3. Properly managed open water did not have any major negative effects on the health or production of commercial Pekin ducks. Wide, intermediate and narrow troughs did not differ substantially in measures of health or productivity.

Animal welfare in different human cultures, traditions and religious faiths.

Animal welfare has become a growing concern affecting acceptability of agricultural systems in many countries around the world. An earlier Judeo-Christian interpretation of the Bible (1982) that dominion over animals meant that any degree of exploitation was acceptable has changed for most people to mean that each person has responsibility for animal welfare. This view was evident in some ancient Greek writings and has parallels in Islamic teaching. A minority view of Christians, which is a widespread view of Jains, Buddhists and many Hindus, is that animals should not be used by humans as food or for other purposes. The commonest philosophical positions now, concerning how animals should be treated, are a blend of deontological and utilitarian approaches. Most people think that extremes of poor welfare in animals are unacceptable and that those who keep animals should strive for good welfare. Hence animal welfare science, which allows the evaluation of welfare, has developed rapidly.

Preslaughter mortality of broilers in relation to lairage and season in a subtropical climate.

The preslaughter handling and transport of broilers are stressful operations that might affect welfare and meat quality and could increase numbers of deaths before slaughter. However, the influence of thermal factors during transportation and lairage at slaughterhouses is complex in subtropical regions, where increasing temperature and high RH are the major concerns regarding animal survival before slaughter. In this study we assessed the influence of a controlled lairage environment on preslaughter mortality rates of broiler chickens that were transported during different seasons of the year and had varying lairage times in the subtropical climate. Preslaughter data from 13,937 broiler flocks were recorded daily during 2006 in a commercial slaughterhouse in southeastern Brazil. The main factors that influenced daily mortality rate were mean dry bulb temperature and RH, lairage time, daily periods, density of broilers per crate, season of the year, stocking density per lorry, transport time, and distance between farms and slaughterhouse. A holding area at the slaughterhouse with environmental control was assessed. Using a double GLM for mean and dispersion modeling, the seasons were found to have significant effects (P < 0.05) on average mortality rates. The highest incidence was observed in summer (0.42%), followed by spring (0.39%), winter (0.28%), and autumn (0.23%). A decrease of preslaughter mortality of broilers during summer (P < 0.05) was observed when the lairage time was increased, mainly after 1 h of exposure to a controlled environment. Thus, lairage for 3 to 4 h in a controlled lairage environment during the summer and spring is necessary to reduce the thermal load of broiler chickens.

Does access to open water affect the health of Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)?

Access to open water is considered good for the welfare of Pekin ducks. These studies investigated the effect that the type of water resource, provided over either straw bedding or a rubber mesh, had on measures of duck health. Pekin strain ducklings (n = 2,600) were managed in pens of 100 on straw over a solid concrete floor. In study 1, one of two water resources (nipple, n = 5 pens; wide-lip bell drinker, n = 5 pens), was located directly over the straw. In study 2, one of three water resources (narrow-lip bell drinker, n = 6 pens; trough, n = 5 pens; and bath, n = 5 pens) was located over a rubber mesh. On d 16, 24, 29, 35, and 43, (study 1) or d 21, 29, 35, and 43 posthatch (study 2), 10 birds were selected from each pen and weighed, and then feather hygiene, footpad dermatitis, eye health, gait score, and nostril condition scores were taken. Treatment had no effect on BW in either study, but in study 2, ducks in the open water treatments had higher scores (P < 0.001) than those in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment by d 43. In study 1, treatment had no effect on hygiene scores, but scores increased over time (P < 0.001). In study 2, ducks in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment were dirtier than those in the bath treatment (P = 0.01), with those in the trough treatment being intermediate. In both studies, ducks with bell drinkers had worse gait scores than those in the other treatments (study 1, P < 0.01; study 2, P < 0.05). Treatment had no effect on eye health scores. However, ducks were less likely to have dirty nostrils when provided with more open water resources in both studies (P < 0.01), or were less likely to have blocked nostrils in the trough and bath treatments than in the narrow-lip bell drinker treatment in study 2 (P = 0.01). Provision of open water, particularly over a properly constructed drainage area, improved some aspects of duck health (improved feather hygiene and BW, and fewer dirty and blocked nostrils). However, further work is needed to investigate these treatments on a commercial scale.

Number of flocks on the same litter and carcase condemnations due to cellulitis, arthritis and contact foot-pad dermatitis in broilers.

1. This study was conducted to verify the impact of different kinds of material and the number of times of litter reuse on the incidence of chicken pathologies. Approximately 4·5 million broilers from conventional Brazilian farms were evaluated in the abattoir for cellulitis, arthritis and contact foot-pad dermatitis. 2. Four different kinds of litter material, Brachiaria grass, corncob, sawdust and rice shell, were used. Brachiaria grass litter showed the highest incidence of contact foot-pad dermatitis. Corncob litter also showed some negative effects on foot quality. Broilers raised on rice shell litter showed good results in terms of the incidence of contact foot-pad dermatitis. The best results were obtained with sawdust litter, because the incidence of cellulitis and arthritis were the lowest and the incidence of contact foot-pad dermatitis was also very low.

Effect of hot-iron disbudding on behaviour and plasma cortisol of calves sedated with xylazine.

We investigated cortisol and behaviour for the first hour after hot-iron disbudding of calves aged 37+/-4 days: disbudded after i/m xylazine (n=10); disbudded after i/m xylazine and regional anaesthesia with lidocaine (n=10); sham-disbudded after xylazine and lidocaine (n=11); sham-disbudded after i/m saline and lidocaine (n=10). Xylazine-treated groups had higher cortisol than saline-treated animals and showed no differences among them at any time. Sham-disbudded calves with xylazine had lower cortisol at 60 min compared with all other times. Xylazine-alone disbudded calves struggled more during the procedure than all other groups. Xylazine-alone disbudded calves showed more ear-flicks at 10, 25 and 40 min and head-shakes at 40 min than all other groups. We conclude that cortisol should not be used as an indicator of pain in disbudded calves while under the sedative effect of xylazine and that some behaviours during and after the procedure are useful in showing that xylazine alone does not control hot-iron disbudding pain.

Cognitive ability and sentience: which aquatic animals should be protected?

It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals, which animals are sentient, which animals have feelings such as pain and which animals should be protected. A sentient being is one that has some ability to evaluate the actions of others in relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its own actions and their consequences, to assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some degree of awareness. These abilities can be taken into account when evaluating welfare. There is evidence from some species of fish, cephalopods and decapod crustaceans of substantial perceptual ability, pain and adrenal systems, emotional responses, long- and short-term memory, complex cognition, individual differences, deception, tool use, and social learning. The case for protecting these animals would appear to be substantial. A range of causes of poor welfare in farmed aquatic animals is summarised.

The effects of land transport on animal welfare.

Animal welfare during and as a result of transport can be assessed by using a range of behavioural, physiological, pathological and carcass-quality indicators that are described in this paper. Measures of the extent of any disease, injury or mortality resulting from, or exacerbated by, transport are important because health is an important part of welfare. Many of the indicators are measures of stress as they involve long-term adverse effects on the individual. Factors affecting the welfare of animals before, during and after transport which are discussed are: definition of the responsibilities and competence, attitudes to animals and need for training of staff; planning of journeys and methods of payment of staff; laws and retailers' codes; genetics, especially selection for high productivity; rearing conditions and experience; the mixing of animals from different social groups; handling and loading procedures; driving methods; space allowance; increased susceptibility to disease and efforts to minimise the spread of disease.

Chicken welfare as indicated by lesions on carcases in supermarkets.

1. The extent of visible lesions in British broiler carcases was investigated in order to discover the extent of any poor welfare. It is well established that hock burn and some other injuries can occur during housing of broiler chickens, whilst other injuries can occur during handling. 2. Three hundred and eighty-four whole conventionally reared British Farm Standard Grade A chickens were scrutinised in supermarkets to assess the frequency of 15 kinds of lesions. Six lesions were analysed histopathologically and this showed that hock burn would have occurred several days pre-mortem, red alular and wrist bruise were very likely to have occurred pre-mortem, whilst red parson's nose and scratches were likely to have occurred pre-mortem. 3. Many broiler carcases in the supermarkets had dermal lesions: 0.82 had hock burns, 0.45 a red parson's nose, 0.32 a red alular, 0.21 wrist bruises and 0.21 had at least one scratch on a leg. The frequency of the larger hock burns increased with body weight. 'Organic' chickens had half as many hock burns as conventionally reared broilers, perhaps because of differences in litter quality or leg strength. 4. The sample studied indicates that painful lesions which would result in poor welfare are frequent in broilers slaughtered in the UK. The Grade A chickens observed exclude birds with obvious visible defects because these birds would have had the blemishes removed and the carcase would have been portioned. Hence the frequencies of lesions in farmed birds would be higher than those reported here.

Causes of poor welfare in large animals during transport.

The welfare of animals during transport should be assessed using a range of behavioural, physiological and carcass quality measures. In addition, health is an important part of welfare so the extent of any disease, injury or mortality resulting from, or exacerbated by, transport should be measured. Many of the indicators are measures of stress in that they involve long-term adverse effects on the individual. Key factors affecting the welfare of animals during handling and transport which are discussed are: attitudes to animals and the need for training of staff; methods of payment of staff; laws and retailers' codes; genetics, especially selection for high productivity; rearing conditions and experience; the mixing of animals from different social groups; handling procedures: driving methods; stocking density; increased susceptibility to disease and increased spread of disease.

Transport stress in cattle and sheep with details of physiological, ethological and other indicators.

The welfare of animals during transport should be assessed using a range of behavioural, physiological and carcass quality measures. In addition, health is an important part of welfare so the extent of any disease, injury or mortality resulting from, or exacerbated by, transport should be measured. Many of the indicators are measures of stress in that they involve long-term adverse effects on the individual. Key factors affecting the welfare of animals during handling and transport which are discussed are: attitudes to animals and the need for training of staff; methods of payment of staff; laws and retailers' codes; genetics especially selection for high productivity; rearing conditions and experience; the mixing of animals from different social groups; handling procedures; driving methods; stocking density; increased susceptibility to disease and increased spread of disease.

Effects of vehicle movements during transport on the stress responses and meat quality of sheep.

Two groups of 26 lambs were transported for 15 hours either on smooth highways or on rougher secondary roads. Nine of the animals in each group were monitored for heart rate and the plasma levels of cortisol, creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, before the journey began, after four, eight and 12 hours and at slaughter. The pH of the meat was measured 45 minutes and 24 hours postmortem and its colour was assessed 24 hours postmortem. The lambs transported on smooth roads had a lower heart rate and lower plasma cortisol concentrations after eight and 12 hours than the lambs transported on rougher roads. Twenty-four hours after slaughter the pH of the meat of the lambs transported on smooth roads was lower than that of the lambs transported on rougher roads.

Vocalisations of the adult female domestic pig during a standard human approach test and their relationships with behavioural and heart rate measures.

Vocal communication in the domestic pig is generally not well documented. The aim of this experiment was to categorise and ascribe the function of the vocalisations of 67 Large WhitexLandrace gilts during a standard human approach test. At testing, each group of 3-5 gilts was moved to a handling area where each individual in turn was fitted with a heart rate monitor and introduced individually to a 2.4mx2.4m test arena. After 2min familiarisation, an unfamiliar human entered the pen and stood for 3min against one wall. Behaviour and sound were recorded continuously with sound recordings transferred onto computer for analysis. Three categories of calls were initially identified: single grunts, single squeals and rapidly repeated grunts. Sixty-six gilts performed single grunts, whereas only 28 and 16 gilts performed the other two categories, respectively. Single grunts could be sub-divided into two types based on sound amplitude profile. These types differed significantly in duration. Gilts performed more short and long grunts per minute during the 3min test period than during the familiarisation period. Most short grunts observed in a subset of 15 gilts were performed with the snout close to a pen surface or the human. The rate of short grunts during the test period was negatively correlated with the time taken to make contact with the human and positively correlated with the amount of locomotor behaviour carried out, the total number of interactions with the human and the total time spent within 0.5m of the human. Most long grunts observed in a subset of 15 gilts were performed with the snout away from any surface. The rate of long grunts during the test period positively correlated with amount of locomotor behaviour and heart rate, after the effect of activity had been removed. Squeals could similarly be sub-divided into long and short types on the basis of amplitude profile. Gilts that squealed carried out more locomotor behaviour, interacted with the human more, had higher mean heart rates and lower heart rate rise when touched by the human, suggesting a higher degree of arousal. Rapidly-repeated grunts were associated with close human interaction. The results indicate that the domestic pig performs a number of distinct vocalisations during isolation. Short single grunts appear to be associated with investigatory behaviour. Long single grunts may be a form of contact call, the rate of which is related to physiological and behavioural activity. Squeals may have similar function but result from a higher level of arousal. Short, rapidly-repeated grunts appear to have either a greeting or threat function. With further research, certain pig vocalisations may be identified as providing useful additional information about an individual's welfare.

Timing and causes of piglet mortality in alternative and conventional farrowing systems.

The causes and timing of piglet mortality were studied in different farrowing systems. In the first experiment 198 litters were recorded in three systems, two of which allowed the sows to move freely, and the third restricted them in conventional crates. More piglets were weaned from the conventional crates than from the open systems and they grew more quickly. More than half the liveborn mortality occurred during the first four days after parturition. In the open systems, 17 per cent and 14 per cent of the piglets born alive were crushed, compared with only 8 per cent in the crates. In the second experiment, 29 sows and litters were studied in detail in a communal pen system during the first seven days of lactation. Three-quarters of the liveborn mortality was due to crushing. The total number of piglets dying per litter, including stillbirths, was significantly associated with the total litter size and the sow's parity. The percentage liveborn mortality was significantly associated with the parity and body length of the sows and with the within-litter variation in the birth weight of the piglets. Individual birth weight was closely associated with percentage survival. Only 28 per cent of piglets weighing less than 1.1 kg at birth survived to seven days.