Gray Divorce During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Drawing on emerging evidence that the pandemic appears to have impeded both the divorce process and actual divorces, we examined whether the gray divorce rate (i.e., divorce among adults aged 50+) declined following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Data from the 2019 and 2021 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to track changes in gray divorce. With the 2021 ACS, we estimated pandemic-era gray divorce rates across sociodemographic subgroups for middle-aged and older adults. We then pooled the 2019 (N = 892,700) and 2021 (N = 898,828) data to examine whether the risk of divorce changed with the onset of the pandemic net of sociodemographic characteristics, distinguishing trends for middle-aged versus older adults. RESULTS: The gray divorce rate dropped following the onset of the pandemic. This drop was more pronounced among middle-aged than older adults. For older adults, the divorce rate essentially stalled. DISCUSSION: The gray divorce rate now mirrors the overall trend of modest decline in U.S. divorce patterns. Whether the gray divorce rate continues to shrink as society transitions to a postpandemic environment awaits future research.

Visualizing Children's Family Structure.

This visualization illustrates the multidimensionality of family life among U.S. children. The authors used the 2022 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplements from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series to examine the intersection of three family structure domains: number of parents, relationship of child to parent(s), and parental union type. Even as 74 percent of children live with two parents, only 60 percent lived with their two biological or adoptive married parents, and substantial variation was evident in children's family configurations. By focusing on child's relationship to parent, the authors revealed that a minority of children lived with only their stepparent(s). A consideration of parents' parental union status shows that parents within stepfamilies are almost nearly as likely to cohabit than marry. Children not residing with their parents were mostly living with other family members, mainly their grandparents, and these relatives were largely married or single. The results suggest that limiting family structure to one domain conceals its complexity by providing a narrow lens on families.

Income Pooling in Midlife: A Comparison of Remarried and Cohabiting Relationships.

OBJECTIVES: The share of adults cohabiting at later ages has risen in the past few decades, though little is known about income pooling among midlife cohabitors. Cohabitation could be an attractive option because partners may be able to preserve their economic autonomy and maintain assets for the next generation. Conversely, cohabitation may operate as an alternative to marriage, allowing midlife adults to combine their resources to achieve economies of scale without the legal obligations of marriage. This study compared income pooling among middle-aged remarried and cohabiting adults in the United States. METHODS: Data were from the nationally representative 2013 Families and Relationships Survey. The analytic sample included adults aged 50-65 who were cohabiting or remarried (N = 888). Logistic regression models were used to predict the likelihood of income pooling among cohabiting and remarried midlife adults, net of relationship, demographic, and economic characteristics. RESULTS: Aligning with the hypothesis that cohabitation and remarriage are distinct in middle age, the odds of income pooling were lower for cohabitors than remarrieds. However, the gap between cohabitors and remarrieds narrowed by later ages. DISCUSSION: This study provides insight into the economic organization of midlife cohabiting relationships, which may have implications for individual well-being and relationship decision-making among middle-aged couples.

A Brief Report on Living Arrangements Following Gray Divorce.

OBJECTIVES: We offer new insights on how older adults in the United States navigate the aftermath of gray divorce (i.e., divorce that occurs among adults aged 50+) by describing their living arrangements upon divorce and tracking the stability of these configurations over time. Living arrangements are important to decipher because they are linked to health, well-being, and longevity. METHODS: Using data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we uncovered patterns of U.S. older adult living arrangements upon divorce (N = 1,057), distinguishing among those who lived alone, lived with others, and lived with a new partner. Multinomial logistic regression models were estimated to assess how individual characteristics (demographics, marital biography, economic resources, health, and social ties) were associated with these configurations. Cumulative survival probabilities gauged the relative stability of these 3 living arrangements. RESULTS: About half of U.S. adults lived alone upon gray divorce, another one-third lived with others, and the remaining 14% lived with a new partner. Adults living with a new partner tended to exhibit the most advantaged sociodemographic profiles, whereas those living solo or with others were largely comparable. More than 70% of adults experienced a subsequent living arrangement transition if they lived with others upon divorce, versus just 50% of those living alone and only 30% of those with a new partner. DISCUSSION: After divorce, older adults reside in a range of living arrangements, some of which are more stable than others. Future work should address whether and how these arrangements and their durability are related to postdivorce adjustment.

A Cohort Comparison of Midlife Marital Quality: A Quarter Century of Change.

Marital quality has been declining among recent cohorts, but whether this pattern characterizes middle-aged and older married adults is largely unknown. The doubling of the divorce rate among persons over the age of 50 years foretells poorer quality marriages for today's midlife adults than a generation ago. Combining data on married individuals aged 50-65 years from the 1987-88 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) and the 2013 Families and Relationships Study, we conduct a cohort comparison of five dimensions of midlife marital quality. Today's older adults report more marital disagreement and instability as well as less fairness and interaction with their spouses than their counterparts did a generation ago. The two cohorts report comparable levels of marital happiness. Consistent with the upward trend in divorce during the second half of life, the quality of midlife marriages appears to have declined over the past quarter century.

The Myriad Living Arrangements of U.S. Single Men and Women in Midlife.

Attention to the living arrangements of singles has centered around young adults who increasingly reside with their parents. By comparison, midlife singles remain overlooked despite a substantial rise in singlehood during this life-course stage. Using the 2021 American Community Survey five-year estimates, the authors uncovered the disparate living arrangements of midlife single men and women household heads, defining midlife as those aged 30 to 49 and single as those who were neither cohabiting nor married. The findings revealed that the living arrangements of men and women were near inverses of each other, with most men living alone, whereas most women lived with someone else. Relative to men, a far greater share of women were residing with their children, whereas a larger share of men were in arrangements that did not include children. The distinctive living arrangements speak to the potential differences in familial obligations and available support sources.

Union and Family Formation During Young Adulthood: Insights From the Add Health.

Family formation patterns among US young adults are shifting, reflecting an accelerating retreat from marriage coupled with significant increases in cohabitation and nonmarital childbearing. Drawing on a selection of published longitudinal studies, this article reviews key contributions to the literature on these trends in union and family formation that have stemmed from research conducted using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, or Add Health. Add Health is integral to deciphering the adolescent precursors to young adult union formation and childbearing, allowing researchers to gauge the roles of multiple social contexts such as family, schools, peers, and adolescent romance, with attention to variation across racial-ethnic groups and by socioeconomic status. In turn, researchers use Add Health to assess how young adult family formation behaviors are related to numerous indicators of health and well-being, ranging from mental and physical health to relationship quality and stability, interpersonal violence, and crime. With its sibling and couples samples, genetic data, and detailed partnership histories for both different- and same-sex relationships, Add Health is an invaluable data source for tracking the familial experiences (formation and dissolution) of a large cohort from adolescence into middle age.

The Rising Midlife First Marriage Rate in the U.S.

Objective: This study documented change in the midlife first marriage rate for U.S. adults aged 40-59 between 1990 and 2019 and assessed the sociodemographic correlates of midlife first marriage formation for today's women and men. Background: Median ages at first marriage are at record highs for women and men, signaling that marriage may be increasingly occurring at older ages. However, first marriage formation among midlife adults remains largely overlooked. Method: Data from the 1990 U.S. Vital Statistics and the 2010 and 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to estimate change in women's and men's first marriage rates across age groups, with a focus on how the rate has changed for midlife adults. Average marginal effects (AMEs) were derived from logistic regression analyses that drew on the 2019 ACS to examine associations between sociodemographic factors and midlife first marriage formation for women and men. Results: Since 1990, the midlife first marriage rate has increased by 75% for women and 45% for men. The shares of women and men entering a first marriage who were aged 40-59 quadrupled between 1990 and 2019 (rising from 2% to 9% among women and from 3% to 12% among men). Some of the well-established predictors of first marriage in young adulthood operated uniquely for first marriage formation in midlife. Conclusion: Future research on first marriage formation should incorporate midlife adults.

Union Formation Expectations among Older Adults Who Live Apart Together in the USA.

There is an ongoing debate over whether living apart together (LAT) relationships are simply long-term relationships or alternatives to cohabitation or marriage. This study examined cohabitation and marriage expectations among older adults who LAT in the United States to address the debate. The analyses also compared the marriage expectations of older adults who LAT and cohabitors. Using data from the 2011 Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS), we examined the union expectations of 250 individuals who LAT and 234 cohabitors. After providing a demographic portrait of older adults who LAT, we used ordered logistic regression models to predict their cohabitation and marriage expectations. Additional models predicted marriage expectations for older adults who LAT versus cohabitors. Older adults who LAT were unlikely to expect to formalize their unions. Adults who LAT were less likely to expect marriage than cohabitors. LAT relationships appear to be long-term partnerships in the United States.

Relationship Quality in Midlife: A Comparison of Dating, Living Apart Together, Cohabitation, and Marriage.

Objective: This study compared the relationship quality of U.S. midlife adults in dating, living apart together (LAT) relationships, cohabitation, and marriage. Background: Unmarried partnerships are gaining ground in midlife but how these partnerships compare to each other and to marriage is unclear. From an incomplete institutionalization perspective, those in unmarried relationships, especially LAT relationships but also cohabitations, face challenges due to unclear relationship norms and expectations which may eventuate in poorer relationship quality than that of the married. Alternatively, cohabitation and, by extension, LAT relationships, offer flexibility and autonomy and thus may function as an alternative to marriage marked by comparable relationship quality. Method: Data were drawn from the 2013 Families and Relationships Survey, a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults. The analytic sample was composed of adults aged 50-65 in a partnership (N=2,166). Multivariable models compared the associations between relationship type (dating, LAT, cohabiting, and married) and relationship quality (happiness, support, commitment, disagreement, and instability). Results: The incomplete institutionalization perspective was supported for LATs, who tended to report poorer relationship quality than marrieds. For cohabitors, this perspective received mixed support. Although cohabitors reported less happiness and commitment than marrieds, which aligned with the incomplete institutionalization perspective, the groups did not differ on relationship support, disagreement, or instability, supporting the cohabitation as an alternative to marriage perspective. Dating, LAT and cohabiting relationships were remarkably alike. Conclusion: This study has implications for understanding the shifting landscape of relationships in midlife which in turn may shape individual health and well-being.

The Graying of Divorce: A Half Century of Change.

OBJECTIVES: We traced the historical arc of the rise in gray divorce (i.e., divorce that occurs among adults aged 50 and older) in the United States since 1970, elucidating unique patterns for middle-aged (aged 50-64) versus older (aged 65 and older) adults. METHODS: Data from the 1970, 1980, and 1990 U.S. Vital Statistics Reports and the 2010 and 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) were used to chart the trends in gray divorce over the past half century. Drawing on the 2019 ACS, we estimated gray divorce rates across sociodemographic subgroups for today's middle-aged and older adults. We pooled the 2010 (N = 757,835) and 2019 (N = 892,714) ACS data to assess whether divorce risks are shifting for middle-aged versus older adults. RESULTS: The gray divorce rate was low and grew only modestly between 1970 and 1990 before doubling by 2010. Since 2010, the rate has decreased slightly (but the decrease is not statistically significant). The gray divorce rate has stagnated among middle-aged adults but continues to climb among older adults. DISCUSSION: Our study illustrates the graying of divorce over the past half century. Nowadays, 36% of U.S. adults getting divorced are aged 50 or older. The only age group with an increasing divorce rate is adults aged 65 and older, raising new questions about how they will navigate old age.

Sole Family Survivors: Older Adults Lacking Family of Origin Kin.

OBJECTIVES: We introduced a unique form of kinlessness: sole family survivorship, which describes the lack of family of origin (i.e., biological parents and siblings) kin. This form of kinlessness may be particularly consequential for older adults who experience other forms of kinlessness (e.g., no spouse/partner or no children) as they are especially likely to have relied on their family of origin for support. METHODS: Data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study (N = 148,346 person-waves) were used to estimate the prevalence of sole family survivorship among adults aged 55 and older and men and women aged 55-74 and 75+. Variation in prevalence levels of sole family survivorship across sociodemographic characteristics, health indicators, and family factors were also estimated. Finally, we tracked cohort trends in sole family survivorship. RESULTS: More than 1 in 10 adults aged 55+ were sole family survivors and this figure rose to more than 1 in 4 among those aged 75+. Adults with no spouse/partner and no children were especially likely to be sole family survivors, meaning they face a double burden of kinlessness. DISCUSSION: Sole family survivorship represents the culmination of loss of multiple, lifelong kin ties. It is more common among those lacking other close kin, signaling the presence of a uniquely vulnerable group of older adults who experience multiple forms of kinlessness. Future research should address how older adults and society at large adapt to kinlessness to ensure successful aging.

The Roles of Gray Divorce and Subsequent Repartnering for Parent-Adult Child Relationships.

OBJECTIVES: Divorce is now widespread in later life, yet little is known about how older adults and their adult children respond in the aftermath of gray divorce. Guided by the life course perspective, this study examines the consequences of gray divorce and subsequent repartnering for parent-adult child relationships from the parent's perspective. METHODS: Using longitudinal data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study in the United States, we estimated growth curve models to compare fathers' and mothers' frequent contact with and financial support to their adult children prior to, during, and following gray divorce. RESULTS: Gray divorce and repartnering had disparate effects on father- versus mother-adult child relationships. Following a divorce, fathers' frequent contact with their adult children decreased but financial support to their adult children increased. Fathers' repartnering had an enduring negative effect on frequent contact with their children. Gray divorce did not alter mothers' financial support to adult children and it actually increased interaction between mothers and adult children as the odds of frequent contact doubled upon divorce. Repartnering had no appreciable effects on mothers' relationships with their adult children. DISCUSSION: The results of our study are consistent with prior research showing that divorce creates a matrifocal tilt in our kinship system. The shifting dynamics of parent-adult child relationships in response to gray divorce and repartnering raise questions about whether gray-divorced parents will be able to rely on their adult children for care as they age.

FRAX-based fracture probabilities in South Africa.

The hip fracture rates in South Africa were used to create ethnic-specific FRAX® models to facilitate fracture risk assessment. INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to develop FRAX models to compute the 10-year probability of hip fracture and major osteoporotic fracture and assess their potential clinical application. METHODS: Age- and sex-specific incidence of hip fracture and national mortality rates were incorporated into a FRAX model for the White, Black African, Coloured and Indian population of South Africa. Age-specific 10-year probabilities of a major osteoporotic fracture were calculated in women to determine fracture probabilities at a femoral neck T score of -2.5 SD, or those equivalent to a woman with a prior fragility fracture. Fracture probabilities were compared with those from selected countries. RESULTS: Probabilities were consistently higher in Indian than in Coloured men and women, in turn, higher than in Black South Africans. For White South Africans, probabilities were lower than in Indians at young ages up to the age of about 80 years. When a BMD T score of -2.5 SD was used as an intervention threshold, FRAX probabilities in women age 50 years were approximately 2-fold higher than in women of the same age but with an average BMD and no risk factors. The increment in risk associated with the BMD threshold decreased progressively with age such that, at the age of 80 years or more, a T score of -2.5 SD was no longer a risk factor. Probabilities equivalent to women with a previous fracture rose with age and identified women at increased risk at all ages. CONCLUSIONS: These FRAX models should enhance accuracy of determining fracture probability amongst the South African population and help guide decisions about treatment.

Does the Transition to Grandparenthood Deter Gray Divorce? A Test of the Braking Hypothesis.

The gray divorce rate, which describes divorce among individuals aged 50 and older, has doubled since 1990. Extending prior research that showed the transition to parenthood has a "braking effect" on divorce, we examined whether the transition to grandparenthood, an emotionally meaningful midlife event that typically renews midlife marriages, exerts an analogous "braking effect" on gray divorce. Using panel data from the 1998-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we found that becoming biological grandparents has a large deterrent effect on gray divorce that persists even after accounting for a host of other factors known to be associated with divorce. However, the transition to step grandparenthood has no protective effect on gray divorce. Our study demonstrates the importance of the larger family system and in particular the life webs connecting the generations for promoting marital stability among midlife couples.

The Economic Consequences of Gray Divorce for Women and Men.

OBJECTIVES: Gray divorce, which describes divorce among persons aged 50 and older, is increasingly common reflecting the doubling of the gray divorce rate since 1990. Yet, surprisingly little is known about the consequences of gray divorce and in particular how women and men fare economically during the aftermath. METHOD: Using longitudinal data from the 2004-2014 Health and Retirement Study, we estimated hybrid fixed/random-effects models comparing women's and men's economic well-being prior to, during, and following gray divorce and subsequent repartnering. RESULTS: Women experienced a 45% decline in their standard of living (measured by an income-to-needs ratio), whereas men's dropped by just 21%. These declines persisted over time for men, and only reversed for women following repartnering, which essentially offset women's losses associated with gray divorce. No gender gap emerged for changes in wealth following divorce with both women and men experiencing roughly a 50% drop. Similarly, repartnering was ameliorative only for women's wealth. DISCUSSION: Gray divorce is often financially devastating, especially for women. Although repartnering seems to reverse most of the economic costs of gray divorce for women, few form new co-residential unions after divorce. This study offers a cautionary tale about the financial aftermath of gray divorce, which is likely to contribute to growing economic disadvantage among older adults.

Midlife Marital Dissolution and the Onset of Cognitive Impairment.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Marital dissolution has become more common in midlife with the doubling of the divorce rate among middle-aged adults. Guided by the stress model that stipulates losing economic, social, and psychological resources lowers well-being, we posited that midlife adults who experienced divorce or widowhood were at greater risk of cognitive impairment than the continuously married. Subsequent repartnering was expected to negate the increased risk. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used data from the 1998-2016 Health and Retirement Study to estimate discrete-time event history models using logistic regression to predict cognitive impairment onset for men and women. RESULTS: Roughly 27% of men who experienced spousal death in midlife went on to experience mild cognitive impairment by age 65. For women, experiencing divorce or widowhood was associated with higher odds of cognitive impairment onset although these differentials were accounted for by economic, social, and psychological resources. Men and women who repartnered after marital dissolution did not appreciably differ from their continuously married counterparts in terms of their likelihoods of cognitive impairment onset. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: A stressful life event, midlife marital dissolution can be detrimental to cognitive well-being, placing individuals at increased risk of developing dementia in later life. The growing diversity of partnership experiences during the second half of life points to the continued importance of examining how union dissolution and formation shape health and well-being.

Visualizing 20 Years of Racial-Ethnic Variation in Women's Ages at Sexual Initiation and Family Formation.

This data visualization uses several cycles of the National Survey of Family Growth to compare trends in median ages at first sex, birth, cohabitation, and marriage between 1995 and 2015 across non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, native-born Hispanic, and foreign-born Hispanic women aged 40 to 44 years. Generally, women's ages at first sex declined, ages at first cohabitation remained stable, and ages at marriage and birth increased. However, there were substantial race-ethnicity-nativity differences in the timing and sequencing of women's reproductive and family experiences, and these differences grew over time. These descriptive findings point to the importance of identifying the larger social forces that contribute to differential experiences while underscoring the fundamental problems inherent with defining whites' reproductive and family behaviors as "normal."

The Roles of Marital Dissolution and Subsequent Repartnering on Loneliness in Later Life.

OBJECTIVES: Loneliness in later life is associated with poorer health and higher risk of mortality. Our study assesses whether gray divorced adults report higher levels of loneliness than the widowed and whether social support or repartnership offset loneliness. METHOD: Using data from the 2010 and 2012 Health and Retirement Study, we estimated ordinary least squares regression models for women (n = 2,362) and men (n = 1,127) to examine differences in loneliness by dissolution pathway (i.e., divorce versus widowhood), accounting for social support and repartnership. RESULTS: Divorced men were lonelier than their widowed counterparts. Although social support reduced loneliness among men, the difference between the divorced and widowed persisted. Repartnership assuaged men's loneliness and reduced the variation between divorced and widowed men. Among women, the results did not reveal differences in loneliness for the divorced and widowed although social support and repartnership linked to less loneliness. DISCUSSION: Later-life marital dissolutions increasingly occur through divorce rather than spousal death. Some older adults go on to form new partnerships. Our findings demonstrate the importance of gerontological research widening the lens beyond widowhood to consider the ramifications of later-life divorce and repartnership for well-being.