Treatment and follow-up of venous thrombosis in the neonatal intensive care unit: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: The critically ill, premature patients of neonatal intensive care units are susceptible to venous thrombosis, an adverse event associated with short- and long-term morbidity. Venous thrombosis is frequently treated with low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) such as enoxaparin, but optimal dosing of LMWH must balance the morbidity of venous thrombosis with the potential adverse affects of anticoagulation. The optimal dosing of enoxaparin for premature infants is unclear. The objective of this study was to describe enoxaparin therapy and follow-up in critically ill neonates diagnosed with venous thrombosis. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective medical record review in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in a single tertiary care institution. Infants with venous thrombosis diagnosed in the NICU were identified using preexisting quality improvement lists and medical records. RESULTS: Twenty-six infants with 30 venous thromboses were identified with a median gestational age of 31 weeks at birth. Eighteen (69%) infants received enoxaparin for venous thrombosis during their hospitalization, beginning with a median dose of 1.5 mg kg-1 every 12 h. This dose was increased to a median of 2.1 mg kg-1 every 12 h to achieve target anti-factor Xa levels. The target dose was significantly higher in patients with a postmenstrual age of <37 weeks. Enoxaparin treatment was documented after discharge in 12 patients, continuing for a median of 99 days. Four patients died during hospitalization and their deaths were not attributable to venous thrombosis or anticoagulation complication. Follow-up documentation between 6 and 24 months after venous thrombosis diagnosis revealed no major morbidity of venous thrombosis or enoxaparin therapy. CONCLUSION: Our data reinforce the relative safety and necessity of enoxaparin doses above 1.5 mg kg-1 per 12 h in most neonates. This was particularly true for infants at lower postmenstrual age.

Predicting death or extended length of stay in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia.

OBJECTIVE: To predict mortality or length of stay (LOS) >109 days (90th percentile) among infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective analysis using the Children's Hospital Neonatal Database during 2010 to 2014. Infants born >34 weeks gestation with CDH admitted at 22 participating regional neonatal intensive care units were included; patients who were repaired or were at home before admission were excluded. The primary outcome was death before discharge or LOS >109 days. Factors associated with this outcome were used to develop a multivariable equation using 80% of the cohort. Validation was performed in the remaining 20% of infants. RESULTS: The median gestation and age at referral in this cohort (n=677) were 38 weeks and 6 h, respectively. The primary outcome occurred in 242 (35.7%) infants, and was distributed between mortality (n=180, 27%) and LOS >109 days (n=66, 10%). Regression analyses showed that small for gestational age (odds ratio (OR) 2.5, P=0.008), presence of major birth anomalies (OR 5.9, P<0.0001), 5- min Apgar score ⩽3 (OR 7.0, P=0.0002), gradient of acidosis at the time of referral (P<0.001), the receipt of extracorporeal support (OR 8.4, P<0.0001) and bloodstream infections (OR 2.2, P=0.004) were independently associated with death or LOS >109 days. This model performed well in the validation cohort (area under curve (AUC)=0.856, goodness-of-fit (GF) χ(2), P=0.16) and acted similarly even after omitting extracorporeal support (AUC=0.82, GF χ(2), P=0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Six variables predicted death or LOS ⩾109 days in this large, contemporary cohort with CDH. These results can assist in risk adjustment for comparative benchmarking and for counseling affected families.

Use of polymerase chain reaction as a diagnostic tool for neonatal sepsis can result in a decrease in use of antibiotics and total neonatal intensive care unit length of stay.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively determine if a negative 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (PCR(-)) could lead to a decrease in the number of antibiotic doses and neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) length of stay (LOS) for infants admitted to the NICU for presumed early-onset sepsis (EOS) with negative blood culture results (BC(-)). STUDY DESIGN: Analysis included 419 infants, greater than 35 weeks gestational age, with PCR(-), BC(-) and LOS > 48 h. Both the investigators and clinical care team were unaware of the PCR results. The actual number of antibiotic doses (AAD) administered was compared to an estimated number of antibiotics doses (EAD) that would have been given until PCR(-) results were available by 18 h. The number of antibiotic doses saved was calculated as (AAD-EAD). The actual NICU LOS in hours (aLOS) for a subset of infants who remained in the hospital primarily for antibiotic therapy was compared to an estimated LOS (eLOS) if infants with PCR(-) were discharged from the NICU when clinically stable. The number of hours saved was calculated as (aLOS-eLOS). RESULTS: Approximately eight antibiotic doses and 85 NICU hours per infant could be saved using PCR(-) results available at 18 h. CONCLUSIONS: Use of 16S rRNA PCR could decrease the number of antibiotics doses and NICU LOS for infants admitted for EOS. This may facilitate: (1) earlier NICU discharge; (2) parental satisfaction; and (3) decreased health care costs.

Effect of a screening-based prevention policy on prevalence of early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness and feasibility of implementing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) screening-based guidelines for preventing early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis. METHODS: We compared prevalence of early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis after institution of the CDC screening-based protocol (October 1, 1995 through August 31, 1999) with that of historical controls (January 1, 1992 through June 30, 1995). We reviewed medical records for a cohort of deliveries of at least 23 weeks' gestation (January 1, 1996 through December 31, 1996) for group B streptococcal colonization status, risk factors, and intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. RESULTS: The prevalence of early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis was 1.16 per 1000 (36 of 31, 133) live births before and 0.14 per 1000 (four of 28,733) live births after institution of the CDC protocol (P <.001). Maternal colonization was known for 95.3% of the 7168 women who delivered (January 1, 1996 through December 31, 1996) at or after 37 weeks' gestation. Of 2174 women who qualified for intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis, 1871 (86.1%) received it before delivery. There was 93. 8% compliance with intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for women who delivered vaginally and 53.2% compliance for women who delivered by cesarean. CONCLUSION: Institution of the CDC screening-based protocol was accomplished at a specialty women's hospital, staffed by full-time faculty and community physicians, with 93.8% compliance for vaginal deliveries, and was associated with an 88% reduction in early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis.

Developmental transitions in the myosin heavy chain phenotype of human respiratory muscle.

We studied the expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms in the costal diaphragm (DIA) and the genioglossus (GG) muscles from 16 to 42 weeks gestation in the human using Western blotting techniques. Embryonic/neonatal MHC (MHCemb/neo) was the predominant isoform expressed in the DIA and GG at 16-24 weeks gestation. Subsequently, MHCemb/neo expression declined and the expression of MHCslow and MHC2A increased. At term, the DIA MHC phenotype was a composite of MHCemb/neo (15% of the total MHC complement), MHCslow (32%), MHC2A (47%), and MHC2B (6%); whereas, the GG was largely comprised of MHC2A (74%). We conclude that human DIA and GG demonstrate temporally dependent changes in MHC expression during gestation- and muscle-specific MHC phenotypes as they approach term.

Pulse dexamethasone does not impair growth and body composition of very low birth weight infants.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of repeated pulses of dexamethasone (PDEX), given to improve cardiopulmonary outcome, on growth of very low birth weight (VLBW, < 1500 g) infants. METHODS: In this prospective, double-blind, randomized clinical trial, VLBW infants mechanically ventilated at 1 week of age received intravenous PDEX or saline placebo (P) for 3 days, every 10 days, until no supplemental oxygen or ventilation was required or 36 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA). Weight gain, fluid intake, caloric intake, and serum glucose were monitored throughout the study. Nutritional assessment at 36 weeks PMA consisted of weight, length, head circumference, skinfold thickness measures, body composition by total body electrical conductance, and bone mineral content (BMC) by single beam photon absorptiometry. RESULTS: 37 PDEX and 31 P infants survived at least 36 days and completed the protocol. Average daily weight gain, fluid intake and caloric intake were not different between groups. The pattern of weight gain (g/kg/day, mean +/- SD) was different: PDEX infants showed significant growth delay during (3.0 +/- 11.4) and immediately after (7.8 +/- 8.7) each pulse, with subsequent growth acceleration (18.3 +/- 8.2) until the next steroid pulse. In contrast, growth rate of P infants was constant (12.6 +/- 3.7) (p = 0.04). Hyperglycemia requiring insulin therapy occurred only in the PDEX group (10/37). The catch-up growth noted between pulses in the PDEX group was explained only in part by insulin therapy. At 36 weeks PMA, there were no differences between groups in body size, composition, or BMC. CONCLUSION: PDEX negatively affected glucose metabolism and growth patterns during and immediately after drug exposure. However, assessment near term gestational age showed similar body composition and size in both groups.

Effect of pulse dexamethasone therapy on the incidence and severity of chronic lung disease in the very low birth weight infant.

We conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial to assess the efficacy and safety of pulse doses of dexamethasone on survival without supplemental oxygen in very low birth weight infants at high risk of having chronic lung disease. Seventy-eight infants with birth weights < or = 1500 gm who were ventilator dependent at 7 days of postnatal age were randomly assigned to receive pulse doses of dexamethasone, 0.5 mg/kg per day, divided twice daily (n = 39), or an equivalent volume of saline solution placebo (n = 39), for 3 days at 10-day intervals until they no longer required supplemental oxygen or assisted ventilation, or reached 36 weeks of postmenstrual age. At study entry, the groups did not differ by birth weight, gestational age, or severity of lung disease. At 36 weeks of postmenstrual age, there was both a significant increase in survival rates without oxygen supplementation (p = 0.03) and a significant decrease in the incidence of chronic lung disease (p = 0.047) in the group that received pulse therapy. Supplemental oxygen requirements were less throughout the study period in the group that received repeated pulse doses of dexamethasone (p = 0.013). The total numbers of deaths and the durations of supplemental oxygen, ventilator support, and hospital stay did not differ between groups. Recorded side effects in the pulse therapy group were minimal and included an increase in the use of insulin therapy for hyperglycemia (p < 0.05). We conclude that in this population of very low birth weight infants, treatment with pulse doses of dexamethasone resulted in improvement in pulmonary outcome without clinically significant side effects.

Effect of undernutrition on contractile and fatigue properties of rat diaphragm during development.

The present study was designed to assess the effects of combined pre- and postnatal undernutrition on the in vitro contractile and fatigue properties of the rat diaphragm during development. In vitro direct stimulation of costal diaphragm from control (CTL) and undernourished (UN) rats was done on postnatal days 1, 4, 14, 21, 30, 40, 50, and 60. Combined pre- and postnatal undernutrition resulted in stunted animal growth but did not alter the diaphragm-to-total body weight ratio. Twitch contraction time, half-relaxation time, and force-frequency relationships were not consistently affected by undernutrition. Specific twitch force and specific tetanic force were also unchanged in the UN group. Fatigue resistance was high and comparable in UN and CTL groups at days 1 and 4. At day 14 and thereafter, fatigue resistance declined but was consistently higher in the UN than in the CTL group. We conclude that combined pre- and postnatal undernutrition results in a significant increase in fatigue resistance of the diaphragm compared with CTL, whereas diaphragm muscle contractile properties are not appreciably affected by prolonged undernutrition.

Postnatal expression of myosin isoforms in the genioglossus and diaphragm muscles.

We studied the expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) and native myosin isoforms in the genioglossus (GG) and costal diaphragm (DIA) muscles of the rat during postnatal development using both denaturing and nondenaturing gel electrophoresis. Primary myotubes in both fast and slow muscles homogeneously express slow as well as embryonic myosin. Since the adult GG is comprised primarily of fast MHC isoforms, whereas the adult DIA is characterized by a mixture of MHC slow and fast isoforms, we hypothesized that the GG and DIA would be subject to different temporal patterns of MHC isoform expression during postnatal development. Native myosin and MHC gels demonstrated a persistence of neonatal MHC (MHC neo) on day 25 in the GG, whereas this isoform was not detected beyond day 21 in the DIA. The MHC phenotype in GG of the adult demonstrated a predominance of MHC 2X (35% +/- 8) and MHC 2B (45% +/- 10) with a smaller proportion of MHC 2A (19% +/- 5). In contrast, the MHC phenotype in adult DIA was characterized by approximately equal proportions of MHC slow (25% +/- 3), MHC 2A (34% +/- 10), and MHC 2X (31% +/- 12) with a small percentage of MHC 2B (9% +/- 7). These data suggest that postnatal regulation of MHC expression in the GG and DIA is muscle specific.

Postnatal expression of myosin isoforms in an expiratory muscle--external abdominal oblique.

We studied the postnatal expression of heavy-chain (MHC) and native myosin isoforms in an expiratory abdominal muscle of the rat, the external abdominal oblique (EO). Moreover, we contrasted EO myosin expression with that of the costal diaphragm (DIA) to draw inspiratory vs. expiratory muscle comparisons during development. Examination of MHC gels demonstrated a mature phenotype of slow and adult fast myosin isoforms at an earlier age in the EO (day 60) than in the DIA [day > 115 (adult)]. The mature MHC phenotype of the EO was characterized by a preponderance of MHC 2B, whereas the DIA was characterized by approximately equal portions of MHC slow, MHC 2A, and MHC 2X. During early postnatal development, there was a delay in the expression of MHC 2A in the EO compared with the DIA. However, MHC 2B, expressed later in development in both muscles, was noted in the EO before the DIA. We conclude that 1) the EO mature myosin phenotype is characterized by a preponderance of fast myosin isoforms and 2) the EO and DIA muscles are subject to different temporal patterns of isoform expression during postnatal development.

Contractile properties of the rat external abdominal oblique and diaphragm muscles during development.

We studied the in vitro contractile and fatigue properties of the rat external abdominal oblique (EAO) and costal diaphragm (DIA) muscles during postnatal development. Isometric twitch contraction (CT) and half-relaxation (RT1/2) times were longer in both the EAO and DIA muscles during the early postnatal period and decreased with age. In the first postnatal week, the CT and RT1/2 were longer in the EAO than the DIA muscle. At 14 days of age and thereafter, the CT and RT1/2 were shorter in the EAO than in the DIA muscle. Force-frequency relationships of the EAO and DIA muscles changed during postnatal development such that the relative force (percent maximum) generated at lower frequencies (less than 15 pulses/s) decreased with age. Moreover the relative force generated by the EAO muscle at lower frequencies was greater than that of the DIA muscle during the early postnatal period but less than that of the DIA muscle in adults. The specific force of both the EAO and DIA muscles increased progressively with age. There were no differences in specific force between the EAO and DIA muscles at any age. The fatigability of the EAO and DIA muscles was comparable during the early postnatal period and increased in both muscles with postnatal development. In adults the EAO muscle was more fatigable than the DIA muscle. We conclude that the contractile and fatigue properties of the EAO and DIA muscles undergo significantly different postnatal transitions, which may reflect their functional involvement in sustaining ventilation.

Myosin heavy chain expression in respiratory muscles of the rat.

Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms of hind limb adult rat muscles and muscles with a range of respiratory activities were analyzed by a sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis technique that allowed electrophoretic separation of the three fast and one slow MHC isoform found in typical rat muscle. Costal and crural diaphragm muscle samples expressed a mixture of MHC beta/slow, MHC2A, and MHC2X but little MHC2B. In contrast, MHC2B was the dominant MHC isoform in the genioglossus, intercostal, and three abdominal muscles, all of which exhibited minimal expression of MHC beta/slow. The amount of MHC2X (relative to total MHC composition) was similar in the diaphragm, genioglossus, and transversus abdominis muscles, while considerably less was detected in the rectus abdominis and external oblique muscles. These results indicate that MHC2X is broadly and variably distributed among respiratory muscles. Furthermore, these data suggest that a large portion of 2X fibers (containing MHC2X), which cannot be detected by standard histochemical analysis, may be present in the genioglossus and transversus abdominis muscles as has been demonstrated for the diaphragm muscle. We speculate that an association exists between the level of MHC2X expression and frequency of respiratory recruitment.

Control of genioglossal muscle activity in the anesthetized piglet: the role of vagal afferents.

We examined genioglossal muscle electromyogram activity during room air breathing and hyperoxic hypercapnia in 10 anesthetized (halothane) newborn piglets before and after bilateral midcervical vagotomy. With vagal afferents intact, genioglossal activity was absent during room air breathing in 10/10 study animals and was recruited in only 4/10 piglets during carbon dioxide breathing. After vagotomy, genioglossal activity remained absent in 9/10 study animals during room air breathing but was recruited in 10/10 piglets during the hypercapnic gas exposure at arterial CO2 tensions comparable to prevagotomy levels. We conclude that vagal afferent feedback modulates genioglossal activity in anesthetized newborn piglets and exerts an inhibitory influence on the activity of this muscle during hyperpnea induced by carbon dioxide breathing.

Effects of perinatal undernutrition on elimination of immature myosin isoforms in the rat diaphragm.

The effect of perinatal undernutrition on the postnatal elimination of immature myosin isoforms in rat diaphragm muscle was examined using electrophoretic and immunocytochemical techniques. Electrophoresis of native myosin showed that neonatal bands were present in diaphragm muscles of both control and undernourished rats on day 4. By day 21, the neonatal bands were diminished in the control diaphragm compared with the diaphragm of the undernourished rats. Neonatal bands persisted on postnatal day 30 in the diaphragm of the undernourished rats but not in the diaphragm of control rats. No significant difference in the time course of elimination of embryonic myosin light chain (LCemb) was observed between the diaphragm muscles of control and undernourished rats with two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Immunocytochemical analysis demonstrated embryonic myosin heavy chain (MHCemb) in all myofibers of the diaphragm muscle of both groups at day 4, but this isoform was not detected in either group by day 14. Reactivity with anti-neonatal myosin heavy chain (MHCneo) indicated that rate of elimination of the MHCneo was delayed in the undernourished state as compared with the normal rats (P less than 0.001). Serum triiodothyronine levels were measured at 14, 21, and 30 days and were significantly lower in the undernourished rats compared with age-matched controls. These data demonstrate that the normal postnatal decrease in MHCneo, but not MHCemb or LCemb, is affected by the nutritional state of the animal. We speculate that these alterations in myosin isoform transitions are induced by hypothyroidism associated with undernutrition.

Effects of continuous low-frequency pacing on immature canine diaphragm.

Although diaphragm pacing has been shown to be a practical method of supporting ventilation in children, its usefulness has been limited because of concern that continuous (24 h/day) diaphragm pacing would fatigue and damage the diaphragm. We examined the functional and structural effects of continuous low-frequency diaphragm pacing on the left hemidiaphragm of five immature dogs aged 65 +/- 2 (SD) days at onset of pacing. Stimulus parameters approximated those required to pace infants: frequency 11.1 Hz, inspiratory time 810 ms, and respiratory rate 20 breaths/min. Animals were paced 24 h/day for 24-28 days. Paced tidal volumes and airway occlusion pressures were unchanged at low (less than 15 Hz) stimulus frequencies but were reduced at high (greater than 20 Hz) stimulus frequencies. Although histologically the paced hemidiaphragms appeared normal, histochemical studies showed a conversion from a mixture of type I (54%) and type II (46%) fibers to a uniform population of type I fibers with high oxidative enzyme activity. Transformation of muscle type was also demonstrated by pyrophosphate gel electrophoresis; fast and slow isomyosin bands were noted in control specimens, whereas only slow isomyosin was identified in paced specimens. Thus, in immature dogs, continuous low-frequency pacing affects both function and structure of the diaphragm.

Expiratory abdominal muscle activity during ventilatory chemostimulation in piglets.

We examined abdominal muscle minute electromyographic (EMG) activity (peak moving time average EMG x respiratory rate) during eupnea, hyperoxic hypercapnia (8% CO2-40% O2-balance N2), and hypoxia (13% O2) in 12 anesthetized (0.5% halothane) newborn piglets. In addition, we assessed the role of vagal afferent pathways in the abdominal muscles' response to ventilatory chemostimulation by examining abdominal EMG activity (EMGab) before and after bilateral cervical vagotomy in five animals. Phasic expiratory EMGab was observed in 11 of 12 piglets during eupnea. Hypercapnia was associated with a sustained augmentation of minute EMGab (444 +/- 208% control). In contrast, hypoxia consistently augmented (1 min, 193 +/- 33% control) then diminished (5 min, 126 +/- 39% control) minute EMGab. Vagotomy resulted in a decline in peak moving time average EMGab by approximately one-half (48 +/- 18% control); the abdominal muscles' response to ventilatory chemostimulation, however, was qualitatively unchanged. We conclude that 1) expiration during eupnea in anesthetized newborn piglets is associated with phasic EMGab; 2) both hypercapnia and hypoxia augment minute EMGab; however, only hypercapnia is associated with sustained augmentation; and 3) although vagal afferents have a role in modulating the base-line level of EMGab, other extravagal mechanisms appear to determine the pattern of EMGab in response to ventilatory chemostimulation.

Postnatal development of phrenic motoneurons in the cat.

The postnatal growth of phrenic motoneurons in the cat was studied using retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The mean somal surface area of these developing motoneurons increased 2.5 times from day 3 to adult while the mean somal volume increased four-fold. This change in mean somal surface area during postnatal development was found to be correlated with the change in mean axonal conduction velocity measured from phrenic motoneurons.

The postnatal growth of motoneurons at three levels of the cat neuraxis.

The postnatal growth of motoneuron cell bodies located in the brainstem, cervical and lumbosacral spinal cord was investigated using retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase in kittens ages 2, 12, 30, 55, 82 and 114 postnatal days and in an adult. The motoneurons innervating an extrinsic tongue muscle, the genioglossus, reached their adult size by eight weeks after birth. In contrast, the phrenic motoneurons innervating the diaphragm achieved adult size by 12 weeks and the motoneurons innervating the medial gastrocnemius muscle continued to grow beyond the twelfth postnatal week. The sizes of these motoneurons relative to one another remained constant during periods of development.

Costal and crural diaphragm, and intercostal and genioglossal electromyogram activities during spontaneous augmented breaths (sighs) in kittens.

Spontaneously occurring augmented breaths (sighs) are common in infants. The pattern of electrical activity of the inspiratory muscles of the thorax and upper airway during augmented breaths, however, has not been fully characterized in this less than fully mature age group. We therefore examined costal and crural diaphragm and external intercostal and genioglossal EMG activities during spontaneous augmented breaths (n = 46) in 10 anesthetized (1.35% halothane) 1-month-old kittens breathing room air. EMG responses were assessed by comparing the spontaneous augmented breaths (AB) to the five immediately preceding breaths (control). The peak moving time average EMG activity observed during the AB was 240 +/- 32% (mean +/- SD) of control for the costal diaphragm, 279 +/- 66% of control for the crural diaphragm, and 274 +/- 68% of control for the external intercostal muscle. The mean increase in EMG activity during the AB was not significantly different among these three muscle groups (P greater than 0.25). Genioglossal EMG activity during AB was observed in only 1 of 10 study animals. These results document that during AB in anesthetized kittens, activity of the thoracic inspiratory muscles (costal/crural diaphragm and external intercostal muscles) increase in parallel, suggesting that they are modulated in a uniform manner. The infrequent observance of genioglossal activity during AB suggests that either 1) halothane anesthesia depresses genioglossal activity more than diaphragmatic and intercostal activity during AB or 2) that genioglossal recruitment is not necessary to maintain upper airway patency during this period of heightened respiratory drive.

Postnatal growth of genioglossal motoneurons.

The postnatal growth of kitten genioglossal motoneurons were examined in six different age groups (newborn, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks and adult) using the technique of retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The cell bodies of 100-150 motoneurons in each age group were analyzed in a transverse plane of section using standard techniques. Somatic genioglossal motoneuron growth occurred primarily along the major axis, which increased from 25.2 microns to 41.3 microns between birth and 8 weeks of postnatal age, after which time there was no further increase in either major or minor dimension of the cell body. The form factor decreased from 0.94 to 0.80 from birth to adulthood indicating an increased eccentricity of the cell body. The number of primary dendrites visible with this technique remained constant throughout the postnatal period. Calculated somal surface area increased in a linear fashion from birth through 8 weeks of postnatal life. There was no further increase in surface area beyond this age. The rate of increase in somal surface area with age was significantly different from both the rate of increase of animal weight and animal surface area with age. The correlations between the demonstrated immature genioglossal morphology and its cellular electrophysiology or integrated respiratory function remain unknown. The recent demonstration of decreased activation of the genioglossus muscle following airway occlusion in premature infants with apnea suggests that the relationships between developing genioglossal motoneuron structure and function warrant further investigation.