Both biofilm cytotoxicity and monocytes' adhesion may be used as estimators of enterococcal virulence.

Our study aimed to identify markers of enterococci's virulence potential by evaluating the properties of strains of different sites of isolation. Enterococcal strains were isolated as commensals from faeces and as invasive strains from the urine and blood of patients from the University Clinical Centre, Gdansk, Poland. Changes in monocytes' susceptibility to the cytotoxic activity of isolates of different origins and their adherence to biofilm were evaluated using a flow cytometer. The bacterial protein profile was estimated by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer. The cytotoxicity of biofilm and monocytes' adherence to it were the most accurate factors in predicting the prevalence of the strain in the specific niche. Additionally, a bacterial protein with mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) 5000 was found to be responsible for the increased bacterial cytotoxicity, while monocytes' decreased adherence to biofilm was linked with the presence of proteins either with m/z 3330 or 2435. The results illustrate that monocytes' reaction when exposed to the bacterial biofilm can be used as an estimator of pathogens' virulence potential. The observed differences in monocytes' response are explainable by the bacterial proteins' profile. Additionally, the results indicate that the features of both bacteria and monocytes impact the outcome of the infection.

Infectious and Commensal Bacteria in Rheumatoid Arthritis-Role in the Outset and Progression of the Disease.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, autoimmune disease with a complex outset. Besides the genetic susceptibility in its pathogenesis, various environmental factors also participate. Of these, in recent years, there have been increasing reports of the involvement of bacteria in the disease's outset and development, especially gut microbiota and oral pathogens. Most recent reports about bacteria participation in RA pathogenesis focus on Prevotella copri and Porphyromonas gingivalis. There are also reports about the involvement of respiratory and urinary tract pathogens. The exact mechanisms leading to RA development used by bacteria are not well known; however, some mechanisms by which bacteria can interact with the immune system are known and can potentially lead to RA development. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive review of the potential bacteria participating in RA development and the mechanism involved in that process.

Gluten-Free Diet Alters the Gut Microbiome in Women with Autoimmune Thyroiditis.

The gut microbiome may contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases, such as autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT). Diet has a critical impact on the gut microbiome, and it has been shown that a gluten-free diet can negatively affect its composition. A gluten-free diet is popular among patients, and therefore the aim of this study was to check whether it affects thyroid function and gut microbiome composition in AIT. Thirty-one women with AIT complied with a gluten-free diet for 8 weeks. After the first 4 weeks, participants were divided into two groups: the first group received gluten in capsules and the other one-rice starch (placebo). Blood and stool samples were examined before diet (T0), after 4 weeks (T1) and after 8 weeks of diet (T2). The only significant difference in blood parameters was observed between T1 and T2 in the placebo group for the thyroid peroxidase antibody level. After the first 4 weeks, a significant increase in Desulfobacterota, Proteobacteria, Prevotella and Parasutterella and a significant decrease in Actinobacteriota, Coriobacteriaceae and Bifidobacterium were observed. The detected microbiome alterations may indicate increasing inflammation; however, further research is required, and for now, a gluten-free diet should be used cautiously in AIT.

FTO and MC4R polymorphisms, and selected pre-, peri- and postnatal factors as determinants of body mass index and fatness in children: a thorough analysis of the associations.

BACKGROUND: Overweight and obesity among children have become significant global health concerns. Previous studies have highlighted the potential role of genetic factors, particularly polymorphisms in the FTO and MC4R genes, as well as environmental factors in the development of childhood obesity. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between genetic, socioeconomic and perinatal factors, adverse childhood events (ACEs), and lifestyle, and their impact on overweight, obesity and body composition parameters in children. Additionally, we explored potential interactions between genetic factors and ACEs. METHODS: Four hundred fifty-six children aged 6-12 years participated in our study. Information on the socioeconomic status, perinatal factors, ACEs and lifestyle of the children was collected with a questionnaire completed by their parents/guardians. We examined the children's body weight and conducted an electrical bioimpedance analysis. Overweight and obesity were diagnosed based on the International Obesity Task Force and McCarthy criteria. We genotyped two selected polymorphisms in the FTO and MC4R genes using the TaqMan SNP allelic discrimination method. RESULTS: Higher BMI (Body Mass Index) z scores were related to higher paternal BMI and lower maternal age at the child's birth. Higher FMI (Fat Mass Index) z scores were associated with higher paternal BMI, increased gestational weight, lower maternal education and the presence of the FTO risk allele. Higher FatM (fat mass in kg) z scores were linked to lower maternal education, lower maternal age at the child's birth, higher maternal body weight gain, paternal BMI and the presence of the FTO risk allele. Moreover, interaction effects were observed on BMI z scores between ACE and FTO AA, and on FMI z scores and FatM z scored between ACE and MC4R CC. CONCLUSIONS: The contribution of environmental factors is more strongly related to changes in body composition than genetic ones. Additionally, the presence of the risk allele combined with unfavourable environmental factors like ACEs leads to visible interaction effects, resulting in increased BMI z scores and FMI z scores in children.

Cool executive functions and their association with body mass & fatness and the FTO gene in school-aged children.

The FTO gene rs9936909 polymorphism is one of the well-documented single nucleotide polymorphisms in the context of increased risk of obesity, including in children. Few studies have tested the association of the FTO gene with cognitive functions. Deficits of "cool" executive functions (EFs) are considered a potential risk factor for excessive weight. The aims of our study were to investigate whether cool EFs are associated with the Body Mass Index, the Fat Mass Index and the risk of excess body mass and overfatness in neurotypically school-aged children, and whether the FTO gene polymorphism is involved in development of this possible association. The sample consisted of 553 children aged 6-12 years old. A body composition analysis, a neuropsychological assessment of EFs, and FTO polymorphism genotyping were performed in the children studied. The study found a significant association of an interference effect in theStroop Color-Word Interference Task and the risk of excessive body fatness, but not excessive body mass. There were no explicit associations between the FTO genotype and EFs deficits. Environmental factors, and particularly low maternal education, appeared to be the strongest contributors to the increased risk of obesity.

Longevity, Centenarians and Modified Cellular Proteodynamics.

We have shown before that at least one intracellular proteolytic system seems to be at least as abundant in the peripheral blood lymphocytes of centenarians as in the same cells of young individuals (with the cells of the elderly population showing a significant dip compared to both young and centenarian cohorts). Despite scarce published data, in this review, we tried to answer the question how do different types of cells of longevous people-nonagenarians to (semi)supercentenarians-maintain the quality and quantity of their structural and functional proteins? Specifically, we asked if more robust proteodynamics participate in longevity. We hypothesized that at least some factors controlling the maintenance of cellular proteomes in centenarians will remain at the "young" level (just performing better than in the average elderly). In our quest, we considered multiple aspects of cellular protein maintenance (proteodynamics), including the quality of transcribed DNA, its epigenetic changes, fidelity and quantitative features of transcription of both mRNA and noncoding RNAs, the process of translation, posttranslational modifications leading to maturation and functionalization of nascent proteins, and, finally, multiple facets of the process of elimination of misfolded, aggregated, and otherwise dysfunctional proteins (autophagy). We also included the status of mitochondria, especially production of ATP necessary for protein synthesis and maintenance. We found that with the exception of the latter and of chaperone function, practically all of the considered aspects did show better performance in centenarians than in the average elderly, and most of them approached the levels/activities seen in the cells of young individuals.

The relation between prenatal stress, overweight and obesity in children diagnosed according to BMI and percentage fat tissue.

BACKGROUND: One of the environmental factors contributing to abnormal weight changes in children may be maternal exposure to adverse environmental factors during pregnancy, which in previous studies led to inconclusive results showing both overweight or obesity and underweight in children. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of prenatal stress on the BMI status and cut-off points for the percentage of fat content. METHODS: The cohort study included 254 girls and 276 boys. Information on prenatal stress was collected retrospectively with a questionnaire on objective adverse events completed by a parent/guardian of a 6-12-year-old child. We examined the body weight of children and performed an electrical bioimpedance analysis of their body composition. We assessed the BMI status according to the International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) criterion and on the basis of body fat according to McCarthy criterion. RESULTS: The results of our study show that the prenatal stress was related to increased risk of overweight (OR 2.14, 95% CI: 1.25-3.65) diagnosed on the basis of body fat cut-off points, but not when the BMI was a diagnostic criterion (OR 1.03, 95% CI: 0.58-1.83). CONCLUSION: The method of diagnosis based on the fat content appears to be an indicator of the occurrence of abnormalities in body composition due to prenatal stress more sensitive than that based on the BMI. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies.

Immunosenescence and COVID-19.

Ageing is associated with modified function of both innate and adaptive immunity. It is believed that changes occurring in ageing immune system are responsible for increased severity and deadliness of COVID-19 in the elderly. Although supported by statistics and epidemiology, these finding do not compute at the mechanistic level as depending solely on chronological and biological ageing. The phenomena describing changes in the aging immune system are immunosenescence and inflammageing, which develop in time depending on challenges to the individual immune system (immunobiography). Thus, "richer" immunobiography (in addition to other factors, including genetic, epigenetics or metabolic) may adversely affect the reactivity to the SARS-CoV-2 not only at later decades of life, but also earlier, in young and middle-aged individuals. On the other hand, infection with SARS-CoV-2 is affecting the function of both innate and adaptive branches of the immune system, adding to the individual immunobiography. Summarizing, immunosenescence and inflammaging may aggravate, but also may be aggravated by SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The link between prenatal stress and indicators of fatness in children - literature review.

Background: There are indications that the occurrence of metabolic diseases in children may be conditioned by factors experienced already in the utero. Aim of the study: The aim of this systematic review was to analyze the studies that examined the effects of stress experienced by a pregnant woman on the child's adiposity rates in postnatal life. Methods: The review includes 20 articles published before March 2020 in Scopus and Medline databases with the use of following keyword combinations: /maternal or mother/, /prenatal or pregnant/, /stress or distress/ and /BMI, body mass index or overweight or obesity or body composition/. Results: The results of the research were inconsistent. Nevertheless, most articles confirmed the positive association of prenatal stress with fatness indicators in children. The review raised a question of the role of the methods applied for stress measurement (objective vs. subjective indicators) and adiposity assessment, as well as the time of prenatal exposition to stress. Conclusion: Most studies have proved that prenatal stress is related to the children adiposity in postnatal life.

Recurrent or persistent salivary gland enlargement in children: When is it Sjögren's?

OBJECTIVES: To describe characteristic features in children with recurrent or persistent salivary gland enlargement and to propose a diagnostic algorithm with specific consideration for Sjögren's disease (SD). METHODS: In this single-center, prospective study, 45 patients < 18 years, with recurrent or persistent salivary gland enlargement of unknown etiology were enrolled from 2006 to 2019. We collected detailed clinical information to characterize this group of patients including specific details of their major salivary gland signs and symptoms. We compared clinical, laboratory and radiological parameters between 4 groups based on the results of labial salivary gland biopsy (LSGB) and between patients who met existing SD criteria or not. RESULTS: 44 patients, with a mean age of 6.8 years and female to male ratio 21:23 were observed over a mean of 3.8 years. Characteristics of salivary gland swelling episodes varied considerably between individuals, but the majority experienced ≤5 episodes per year, lasting ≤ 1 week, with swelling affecting either or both glands. Ocular and oral dryness symptoms were observed only in 25% and 59% patients, respectively. The majority were positive for ANA, but negative for SD-specific antibodies. A total of 75% patients fulfilled at least one of the existing SD criteria. CONCLUSION: SD is a major cause of recurrent salivary gland enlargement in children. For children meeting adult criteria, the diagnosis of SD is clear. However, for the many children without dryness symptoms, objective dryness, or SD-specific antibodies, further workup including a combination of salivary gland imaging and histopathological examination can help establish the diagnosis of SD.

Association of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) with obesity and underweight in children.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are related to both obesity and underweight from childhood, and that the association of ACEs with weight abnormalities is modulated by type of ACEs, sex and socioeconomic status (SES) indices. METHODS: The relations between ACEs (0 vs ≥ 1), ACE accumulation and ACE type with weight status and z scores BMI were assessed in 503 children aged 6-12 years from Poznan, Poland. The effects of interaction of ACEs with sex and SES on z scores BMI were included in the analyses. RESULTS: ACEs were significantly related to both obesity and underweight, in unadjusted analysis, and when sex and SES indices, such as size of place of residence, people per room in household, and parental education were controlled. The relation of ACEs with z scores BMI was modulated by ACE type, parental subjective assessment of economic situation of a family and parental education. ACE accumulation was not related to an increase of obesity or underweight rate, or z scores BMI. CONCLUSION: The study implicates the need for both obesity and underweight prevention in individuals with adverse experiences as early as in childhood. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III: evidence obtained from well-designed cohort study.

Achromobacter denitrificans pneumonia in a kidney transplant recipient - dose-dependent decrease of phagocytic activity as a potential mechanism for everolimus pulmonary toxicity.

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors inclusive regimens are associated with increased risk of pulmonary toxicity, but the underlying mechanism has not been elucidated so far. We present the case of a 68-year-old man, after deceased-donor kidney transplantation (KTx), maintained on de novo everolimus (EVR) based immunosuppression, who developed Achromobacter denitrificans pneumonia 3 months after KTx. There was clinical improvement with antibiotic treatment, but without a radiological resolution. An additional reduction of the EVR dose resulted only in partial resolution of radiological abnormalities. We performed a functional analysis of peripheral blood neutrophils and monocytes. The ability of phagocytosis and oxidative burst generation against A. denitrificans and Escherichia coli was significantly decreased on EVR treatment as compared to the control healthy person, and significantly improved after 3 weeks of EVR absence. Additionally, these processes were significantly affected by increasing doses of EVR in vitro in the control healthy donor in a dose-dependent manner. EVR discontinuation, with no additional antibiotic treatment, resulted in complete recovery and resolution of pulmonary infiltrates. Our findings suggest that dose-dependent impairment of neutrophil/monocyte phagocytic activity and oxidative burst generation might be a potential mechanism for EVR pulmonary toxicity.

Common and Unique Genetic Background between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Excessive Body Weight.

Comorbidity studies show that children with ADHD have a higher risk of being overweight and obese than healthy children. This study aimed to assess the genetic alternations that differ between and are shared by ADHD and excessive body weight (EBW). The sample consisted of 743 Polish children aged between 6 and 17 years. We analyzed a unique set of genes and polymorphisms selected for ADHD and/or obesity based on gene prioritization tools. Polymorphisms in the KCNIP1, SLC1A3, MTHFR, ADRA2A, and SLC6A2 genes proved to be associated with the risk of ADHD in the studied population. The COMT gene polymorphism was one that specifically increased the risk of EBW in the ADHD group. Using the whole-exome sequencing technique, we have shown that the ADHD group contains rare and protein-truncating variants in the FBXL17, DBH, MTHFR, PCDH7, RSPH3, SPTBN1, and TNRC6C genes. In turn, variants in the ADRA2A, DYNC1H1, MAP1A, SEMA6D, and ZNF536 genes were specific for ADHD with EBW. In this way, we confirmed, at the molecular level, the existence of genes specifically predisposing to EBW in ADHD patients, which are associated with the biological pathways involved in the regulation of the reward system, intestinal microbiome, and muscle metabolism.

Do Hot Executive Functions Relate to BMI and Body Composition in School Age Children?

Deficits of 'hot' executive functions (EFs) involving emotional and motivational processes are considered as a risk factor for excessive weight, but few studies have tested the relationship between hot EFs and body composition in children. The aim of the study was to assess the association of the ability to delay gratification and affective decision-making with the body mass index (BMI) and body composition in children with typical neurocognitive development. The sample consisted of 553 Polish children aged between 6-12 y. The delay of gratification task (DGT) was applied to assess the ability to delay gratification. The Hungry Donkey test (HDT) was applied to assess affective decision-making. The indicators of decision-making in the HDT were net score and learning rate. The relationships between hot EFs and BMI, fat mass index (FMI), lean body mass index (LBMI) were tested. The association of the z scores of BMI and FMI, overweight/obesity, and the ability to delay gratification was found insignificant after controlling cofounding factors. Most of the results on affective decision-making and z scores for BMI, FMI and LBMI were insignificant as well. The relationship between the ability to delay gratification, affective decision-making, and adiposity is not pronounced in typically developed children.

B cells as target for immunotherapy in rheumatic diseases - current status.

This mini-review is a short overview of different therapeutical strategies targeting B cells in systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases, mainly: rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and primary Sjogren Syndrome (pSS). Many strategies and their rationale are discussed in this review: B cells' depletion (anti-CD20, anti-CD22), long-lived plasma cells depletion (anti-CD19, anti-CD27, anti-CD38 and anti-CD138), changing activation of B cells (anti-BAFF) and inhibiting proteasomes in plasma cells (bortezomib). The past successful therapies and less successful are shown, and the possible reasons for failures are discussed.

Stress/Immune Biomarkers in Saliva among Children with ADHD Status.

Background. This cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate stress and immune biomarkers in saliva samples of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ADHD compared to healthy non-ADHD children. Material and methods. A total of 132 children under 11 years old (8.5 ± 1.1) enrolled in a cross-sectional study: with confirmed ADHD (n = 60) and healthy controls (n = 72). The clinical evaluation included physical measurements (height, waist, hip circumference, body weight, body mass index BMI, BMI z-score) and unstimulated saliva collection and measurements of free cortisol, salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), and secreted immunoglobulins (sIgA, IgG, and IgM) with quantitative assay (ELISA) analysis. Unpaired t-test, Welch test, or Mann-Whitney U test were applied for group comparisons when appropriate, and the correlation between variables was analyzed with Spearman's rank coefficient. Results were considered significant at p < 0.05. Results. In the ADHD group, body weight (p ≤ 0.01), BMI (p ≤ 0.009), and hip circumference (p ≤ 0.001) significantly differed, while waist size and BMI z-score did not (p > 0.05). Significant elevation of the salivary sAA (p = 0.03), sIgA (p = 0.02), and IgM (p ≤ 0.001) biomarkers were detected, without differences in the morning cortisol (p > 0.05). Significant correlations between cortisol and BMI, hip size, and IgA, as well as between IgG and sAA and IgA were obtained. Conclusions. Saliva can be used to monitor ADHD status with regard to biomarkers indicating the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, as HPA axis, and sympathetic activity. The results indicate that morning collection of saliva in contrast to unchanged salivary cortisol, may evaluate mentioned above system dysregulations by measurements of sAA and immunoglobulins among ADHD children.

Proteodynamics and aging of eukaryotic cells.

All aspects of each protein existence in the eukaryotic cells, starting from the pre-translation events, through translation, multiple different post-translational modifications, functional life and eventual proteostatic removal after loss of functionality and changes in physico-chemical properties, can be collectively called the proteodynamics. With aging, passing of time as well as accumulating effects of exposures, interactions and wearing-off lead to problems at each of the above mentioned stages, eventually leading to general malfunction of the proteome. This work briefly reviews and summarizes current knowledge concerning this important topic.

Salivary Biomarkers (Opiorphin, Cortisol, Amylase, and IgA) Related to Age, Sex, and Stress Perception in a Prospective Cohort of Healthy Schoolchildren.

BACKGROUND: The use of easily accessible biomarkers for assessing young patients' health is weighty. This cohort study is aimed at measuring stress/immune biomarkers in the saliva of healthy school-age children and comparing subgroups according to age, sex, and stress perception. Material and Methods. 503 children under 12 years old (8.7 ± 1.3) were included with anthropometric evaluation (height, waist, hip circumference, body weight, and body mass index (BMI)). Levels of opiorphin (OPI), free cortisol, alpha-amylase (sAA), and secreted immunoglobulin (sIgA) were determined by quantitative assays (ELISA) in unstimulated saliva. Unpaired t-test, Welch test, and Mann-Whitney U test were applied for appropriate group comparisons, and the correlation between variables was analyzed with Spearman's rank coefficient. Results were considered significant at p < 0.05. RESULTS: sIgA and sAA exhibited significant differences depending on age and sex: IgA (ng/mL): 86 ± 68.6 vs. 104.9 ± 72.1 for (6-7 y.o.) and (8-11 y.o.), respectively, and 108.1 ± 80.1 vs. 94.6 ± 62.2 for male and females, respectively; sAA (U/mL): 78.9 ± 54.4 vs. 100.5 ± 81.2 for (6-7 y.o.) and (8-11 y.o.). No difference related to age or sex between groups was observed for cortisol and OPI. However, OPI levels were higher and correlated to prior stress exposure in children (0.31 ± 0.4 vs. 0.26 ± 0.5 ng/mL, p = 0.031). sAA was negatively correlated to low mood self-declaration in children in the last two weeks (r = -0.10, p = 0.045). CONCLUSIONS: sIgA and sAA can be used as sex- and age-related biomarkers in children 6-12 y.o., which is not the case for free cortisol and opiorphin. However, OPI reflected previous exposure to stress, suggesting its use for evaluating stress-related changes in children.

Enhancement of Circulating and Intestinal T Regulatory Cells and Their Expression of Helios and Neuropilin-1 in Children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The proportions of intestinal and peripheral regulatory T cells (Tregs) in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) were poorly investigated, as well as different subsets of these cells. Helios and Neuropilin-1 were proposed as markers differentiating between thymic and peripheral Tregs. Therefore, the aim of current work was to investigate the proportions of Tregs and expression of Helios and Neuropilin-1 in Tregs in peripheral blood and intestinal mucosa of children with inflammatory bowel disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifteen patients newly diagnosed with inflammatory bowel disease: ulcerative colitis (n=7) and Crohn's disease (n=8) were included in the study. Nine children who presented with no abnormalities in colonoscopy served as a control group. Quantification of regulatory T cells of the CD4+CD25highFOXP3+ phenotype, as well as Helios+ and Neuropilin-1+ in peripheral blood and bowel mucosa was based on multicolor flow cytometry. RESULTS: The rates of circulating and intestinal Tregs were significantly higher in the studied group than in the control group. The rate of intestinal T regulatory lymphocytes was significantly higher than circulating Tregs in patients with IBD, but not in the control group. The median proportion of circulating FOXP3+Helios+ cells amounted to 24.83% in IBD patients and 15.93% in the controls. The median proportion of circulating FOXP3+Nrp-1+ cells was 34.23% in IBD and 21.01% in the control group. No statistically significant differences were noted for the circulating FOXP3+Helios+ cells and FOXP3+Nrp-1+ cells between the studied and the control group. CONCLUSION: The rates of circulating and intestinal T regulatory cells are increased in naïve pediatric patients with IBD. The rate of Tregs is higher in intestinal mucosa than in peripheral blood in patients with IBD. Flow cytometry is a valuable method assessing the composition of infiltrates in inflamed tissue. Helios and Neuropilin-1 likely cannot serve as markers to differentiate between natural and adaptive Tregs.

Excessive Weight Gain and Dental Caries Experience among Children Affected by ADHD.

In recent years, attention has been paid to the co-occurrence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity, but results in relation to dental caries outcomes differ. The study was conducted to determine obesity/overweight and dental caries in children suffering from ADHD and to draw comparisons with non-ADHD children. A total of 119 children under 11 years old (8.2 ± 1.2) were enrolled into a cross-sectional study: those with confirmed ADHD (n = 39), and healthy controls (n = 80). The behavioral evaluation included a parent interview directed at sweetened food/drink habits. The clinical evaluation included physical measurements (height, waist, hip circumference, body weight, body mass index (BMI), and dental examination (International Caries Detection and Assessment System-ICDAS). Results showed a higher prevalence of abnormal body weight, hip circumference, and BMI, and a higher frequency of caries (84.6%) in the ADHD group. Significant caries differences for primary (ICDAS 0, 1, 2, 5, 6 scores) and permanent teeth (ICDAS 1, 3 scores) were recorded. The questionnaire pinpointed interplays between sugar consumption and tooth decay, especially for primary dentition. It can be concluded that the consumption of sweetened foods/drinks among ADHD children may lead to an increased rate of overweight, but may also affect oral health. Limiting sugar consumption might be one of the important elements in prevention programmes against dental caries and overweight/obesity.