Loneliness across time and space.

People feel lonely when their social needs are not met by the quantity and quality of their social relationships. Most research has focused on individual-level predictors of loneliness. However, macro-level factors related to historical time and geographic space might influence loneliness through their effects on individual-level predictors. In this Review, we summarize empirical findings on differences in the prevalence of loneliness across historical time and geographical space and discuss four groups of macro-level factors that might account for these differences: values and norms, family and social lives, technology and digitalization, and living conditions and availability of individual resources. Regarding historical time, media reports convey that loneliness is on the rise, but the empirical evidence is mixed, at least before the COVID-19 pandemic. Regarding geographical space, national differences in loneliness are linked to differences in cultural values (such as individualism) but might also be due to differences in the sociodemographic composition of the population. Research on within-country differences in loneliness is scarce but suggests an influence of neighbourhood characteristics. We conclude that a more nuanced understanding of the effects of macro-level factors on loneliness is necessary because of their relevance for public policy and propose specific directions for future research.

Alignment of the personality inventory for ICD-11 with the five-factor model of personality.

A central innovation in the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) is a dimensional personality disorder model differentiating five personality trait domains. The Personality Inventory for ICD-11 (PiCD) is a frequently used measure to assess these components of the ICD-11 personality disorder model. Conceptually, the ICD-11 personality trait domains correspond to trait domains from the five-factor model (FFM) of personality. However, empirically, it is unclear how the PiCD scales align with the FFM. In this questionnaire study with 480 German community adults, we assessed the joint factor structure of the PiCD trait domain scales and the FFM personality facets (assessed with the Big Five Inventory-2 [BFI-2]). A principal axis factor analysis revealed a joint five-factorial structure. The PiCD trait domain scales and the BFI-2 facet scales of the respectively corresponding FFM trait domains were almost perfectly aligned, including a bipolar anankastia-disinhibition factor along the conscientiousness dimension. Facets of openness to experience formed a fifth factor, separate from the PiCD scales. Together, these findings demonstrate structural correspondences of the PiCD trait domain scales and the respective BFI-2 facet scales, mirroring conceptual analogies between the ICD-11 and FFM personality models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Loneliness from Young Adulthood to Old Age: Explaining Age Differences in Loneliness.

Prior research in non-U.S. samples has found a complex nonlinear relationship between loneliness and age. This research has shown that established predictors of loneliness - poor health, being unmarried, living alone, and having infrequent social interactions - help to explain age differences in loneliness. However, while some variables were found to be universal predictors of loneliness at all ages, others were relevant in specific age groups only. In this study, we describe age differences in frequency of loneliness from age 18 to 89+ years in the U.S., and examine age differences in predictors of loneliness from age-specificity and age-normative perspectives. We used cross-sectional nationally representative data from the General Social Survey (N = 2,477) and found a nonlinear relationship between age and loneliness that closely resembles prior research. However, we found no evidence for age-specific predictors of loneliness. Household income, household size, marital status, health, and frequency of socializing were "universal" predictors of loneliness; their associations with loneliness did not differ in strength with age. Our hypothesis that individuals who deviated from age-specific norms would experience more intense loneliness was not supported. Implications for research and loneliness interventions are discussed.

Is loneliness in emerging adults increasing over time? A preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis and systematic review.

Judged by the sheer amount of global media coverage, loneliness rates seem to be an increasingly urgent societal concern. From the late 1970s onward, the life experiences of emerging adults have been changing massively due to societal developments such as increased fragmentation of social relationships, greater mobility opportunities, and changes in communication due to technological innovations. These societal developments might have coincided with an increase in loneliness in emerging adults. In the present preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis, we examined whether loneliness levels in emerging adults have changed over the last 43 years. Our analysis is based on 449 means from 345 studies with 437 independent samples and a total of 124,855 emerging adults who completed the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale between 1976 and 2019. Averaged across all studies, loneliness levels linearly increased with increasing calendar years (ß = .224, 95% CI [.138, .309]). This increase corresponds to 0.56 standard deviations on the UCLA Loneliness Scale over the 43-year studied period. Overall, the results imply that loneliness can be a rising concern in emerging adulthood. Although the frequently used term "loneliness epidemic" seems exaggerated, emerging adults should therefore not be overlooked when designing interventions against loneliness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Who does or does not use the 'Corona-Warn-App' and why?

To slow the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the German government released the 'Corona-Warn-App', a smartphone application that warns users if they have come into contact with other users tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Since using the 'Corona-Warn-App' is health-relevant behavior, it is essential to understand who is (and who is not) using it and why. In N = 1972 German adults, we found that non-users were on average older, female, healthier, in training and had low general trust in others. The most frequently named reasons by non-users were privacy concerns, doubts about the effectiveness of the app and lack of technical equipment.

Physical activity and subjective well-being in healthy individuals: a meta-analytic review.

Longstanding research suggests a positive relation between physical activity and health. However, when investigating this relation most studies focused on the absence of disease or infirmity as health indicators. The relation between physical activity and positive health-related constructs such as subjective well-being (SWB) remains oftentimes unexplored. The present meta-analysis offers a rigorous test of the relation between physical activity and SWB in healthy individuals, by including all different kinds of physical activity and SWB facets from childhood to old age. Random-effects meta-analysis using robust variance estimation revealed a positive relation (d = 0.360, 95% CI [0.301, 0.420]). Our results demonstrate a small beneficial main effect of physical activity on SWB, independent of the prior fitness level of the participants and various characteristics of the physical activity intervention. This effect was found in experimental studies as well as in correlational and quasi-experimental studies. Physical activity was more strongly related to positive affect compared to cognitive well-being and was unrelated to negative affect. Our results provide evidence for the importance of physical activity in the context of well-being. Further, we also systematically review and discuss the large heterogeneity of studies published on this relation and warrant further research regarding underlying mechanisms.

Nothing going on? Exploring the role of missed events in changes in subjective well-being and the Big Five personality traits.

OBJECTIVE: Missed events are defined as the nonoccurrence of expected major life events within a specified time frame. We examined whether missed events should be studied in research on growth by exploring the role of missed events for changes in subjective well-being (SWB) and the Big Five personality traits. METHOD: The samples were selected from two nationally representative panel studies, the German Socioeconomic Panel Innovation Sample (SOEP-IS, total N = 6,638) and the Dutch Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences panel (LISS, Ns between 4,262 and 5,749). Rank-order stability and mean-level change were analyzed using regression and mixed models. Type I error probability was reduced by using conservative thresholds for level of significance and minimal effect size. RESULTS: Expected but missed events were more frequent than actually experienced events. For SWB, rank-order stability tended to be lower among those who experienced a missed event than among those who did not. For the Big Five personality traits, significant differences between those who did and those who did not experience a missed event were rare and unsystematic. CONCLUSION: Missed events merit more attention in future research on growth and personality change, but the effects are probably weak.

A propensity-score matched study of changes in loneliness surrounding major life events.

Major life events are often discussed as triggers of loneliness. However, longitudinal studies with frequent assessments investigating changes in loneliness surrounding major life events are lacking. This preregistered study investigated the associations between various family- and work-related major life events and changes in loneliness, using propensity-score matched data from a Dutch nationally representative prospective longitudinal study. We applied mixed-effects models to describe average loneliness trajectories before, during, and after 10 major life events. Event-related loneliness trajectories differed between events and individuals. Most changes in loneliness were found in reaction to family-related major life events. We found immediate and long-lasting increases in loneliness after the transition into parenthood, marital separation, widowhood, but also after a job loss. Further gradual changes in loneliness were found after marriage, marital separation, and job loss. On average, transition into paid employment, reemployment after unemployment, retirement, and cohabitation did not trigger changes in loneliness. For some major life events, we found that event-related loneliness trajectories differed between individuals who experienced an event at an average age and individuals who experienced an event younger or older than average. Overall, our results highlight the importance of considering major life events as possible triggers of loneliness but also point to some general methodological challenges when studying the effects of major life events. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Changes in daily loneliness for German residents during the first four weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic.

RATIONALE: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak has dramatically altered people's social lives due to social restriction measures taken to control the coronavirus spread. Early on, increased loneliness has been publicly discussed as a harmful psychological side effect of these measures. Due to the serious adverse health consequences of loneliness, it is essential to take these concerns seriously and investigate them systematically to allow for evidence-based decision making. Thus far, however, high-resolution empirical evidence of such harmful side effects is rare. METHODS: The present preregistered large-scale daily diary study assessed daily loneliness in 4,844 German adults between March 16 and April 12, 2020. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Daily loneliness slightly increased during the first two weeks since implementing the pandemic-related measures and slightly decreased thereafter. With increasing age, daily loneliness increased more strongly over the four weeks. Moreover, daily loneliness increased more strongly for parents compared to people without children. Thus, despite some increases in loneliness in some individuals, there was no linear increase in loneliness in response to the first pandemic-related measures in the present sample.