ABSTRACT
This article provides a comprehensive narrative review of the history of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and their development over time. Firstly, it explores the significant role of serendipity in the discovery of essential AEDs that continue to be used today, such as phenobarbital and valproic acid. Subsequently, it delves into the historical progression of crucial preclinical models employed in the development of novel AEDs, including the maximal electroshock stimulation test, pentylenetetrazol-induced test, kindling models, and other animal models. Moving forward, a concise overview of the clinical advancement of major AEDs is provided, highlighting the initial milestones and the subsequent refinement of this process in recent decades, in line with the emergence of evidence-based medicine and the implementation of increasingly rigorous controlled clinical trials. Lastly, the article explores the contributions of artificial intelligence, while also offering recommendations and discussing future perspectives for the development of new AEDs.
ABSTRACT
Stroke is one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide. Autonomic dysfunction after ischemic stroke is frequently associated with cardiac complications and high mortality. The brain-heart axis is a good model for understanding autonomic interaction between the autonomic central network and the cardiovascular system. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is a non-invasive approach for understanding cardiac autonomic regulation. In stroke patients, HRV parameters are altered in the acute and chronic stages of the disease, having a prognostic value. In this literature review we summarize the main concepts about the autonomic nervous system and HRV as autonomic biomarkers in ischemic stroke.
Subject(s)
Brain Ischemia , Ischemic Stroke , Stroke , Autonomic Nervous System , Biomarkers , Brain Ischemia/complications , Heart Rate , Humans , Stroke/complicationsABSTRACT
ABSTRACT Stroke is one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide. Autonomic dysfunction after ischemic stroke is frequently associated with cardiac complications and high mortality. The brain-heart axis is a good model for understanding autonomic interaction between the autonomic central network and the cardiovascular system. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is a non-invasive approach for understanding cardiac autonomic regulation. In stroke patients, HRV parameters are altered in the acute and chronic stages of the disease, having a prognostic value. In this literature review we summarize the main concepts about the autonomic nervous system and HRV as autonomic biomarkers in ischemic stroke.
RESUMO O acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) é uma das principais causas de mortalidade e deficiência no mundo inteiro. Alterações do sistema nervoso autônomo após AVC estão frequentemente associadas a complicações cardíacas e alta mortalidade. O eixo cérebro-coração é um modelo apropriado para entender as interações entre a rede central autonômica e o sistema cardiovascular. A análise da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (VFC) é uma aproximação não invasiva para o entendimento da regulação autonômica cardíaca. Em doentes que sofreram um AVC, os parâmetros da VFC se encontram alterados nas fases aguda e crônica da doença, com a possibilidade de valor prognóstico. Nesta revisão da literatura, apresentamos os principais conceitos sobre o sistema nervoso autônomo e a variabilidade da frequência cardíaca como biomarcador autonômico no acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico.
