Membrane translocation of glutaric acid and its derivatives.

The neurodegenerative disorder glutaric aciduria type I (GA I) is characterized by increased levels of cytotoxic metabolites such as glutaric acid (GA) and 3-hydroxyglutaric (3OHGA). The present report summarizes recent investigations providing insights into mechanisms of intra- and intercellular translocation of these metabolites. Initiated by microarray analyses in a mouse model of GA I, the sodium-dependent dicarboxylate cotransporter 3 (NaC3) was the first molecule identified to mediate the translocation of GA and 3OHGA with high and low affinity, respectively. More recently, organic anion transporters (OAT) 1 and 4 have been reported to be high-affinity transporters for GA and 3OHGA as well as D-2- and L-2-hydroxyglutaric acid (D2OHGA, L2OHGA). The concerted action of NaC3 and OATs may be important for the directed uptake and excretion of GA, 3OHGA, D2OHGA and L2OHGA in kidney proximal tubule cells. In addition, experimental data on cultured neuronal and glial cells isolated from mouse brain demonstrated that GA rather than 3OHGA may competitively inhibit the anaplerotic supply of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates from astrocytes to neurons. The identification of GA and GA derivative transporters may represent targets for new approaches to treat patients with GA I and related disorders.

Transport of organic anions across the basolateral membrane of proximal tubule cells.

Renal proximal tubules secrete diverse organic anions (OA) including widely prescribed anionic drugs. Here, we review the molecular properties of cloned transporters involved in uptake of OA from blood into proximal tubule cells and provide extensive lists of substrates handled by these transport systems. Where tested, transporters have been immunolocalized to the basolateral cell membrane. The sulfate anion transporter 1 (sat-1) cloned from human, rat and mouse, transported oxalate and sulfate. Drugs found earlier to interact with sulfate transport in vivo have not yet been tested with sat-1. The Na(+)-dicarboxylate cotransporter 3 (NaDC-3) was cloned from human, rat, mouse and flounder, and transported three Na(+) with one divalent di- or tricarboxylate, such as citric acid cycle intermediates and the heavy metal chelator 2,3-dimercaptosuccinate (succimer). The organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) cloned from several species was shown to exchange extracellular OA against intracellular alpha-ketoglutarate. OAT1 translocated, e.g., anti-inflammatory drugs, antiviral drugs, beta-lactam antibiotics, loop diuretics, ochratoxin A, and p-aminohippurate. Several OA, including probenecid, inhibited OAT1. Human, rat and mouse OAT2 transported selected anti-inflammatory and antiviral drugs, methotrexate, ochratoxin A, and, with high affinities, prostaglandins E(2) and F(2alpha). OAT3 cloned from human, rat and mouse showed a substrate specificity overlapping with that of OAT1. In addition, OAT3 interacted with sulfated steroid hormones such as estrone-3-sulfate. The driving forces for OAT2 and OAT3, the relative contributions of all OA transporters to, and the impact of transporter regulation by protein kinases on renal drug excretion in vivo must be determined in future experiments.

Potential-dependent steady-state kinetics of a dicarboxylate transporter cloned from winter flounder kidney.

The two-electrode voltage-clamp technique in combination with tracer uptake experiments was used to investigate the dependence of dicarboxylate transport kinetics on membrane potential in Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing the flounder renal high-affinity-type sodium dicarboxylate cotransporter (fNaDC-3). Steady-state succinate-dependent currents in the presence of Na+ were saturable with an apparent affinity constant for succinate, K0.5,succ, of 60 microM. K0.5,succ was independent of membrane potential, suggesting succinate binding at the surface of the fNaDC-3 protein. The maximal succinate-dependent current, deltaImax, increased with hyperpolarization, suggesting that the empty carrier may translocate net charge. Succinate-induced currents showed sigmoidal dependence on Na+ concentration, and K0.5,Na+ decreased with hyperpolarization, suggesting Na+ binding in an ion well. Lowering the external Na+ concentration to 20 mM increased K0.5,succ approximately threefold. Succinate-induced currents were inhibited by Li+ with an Ki,Li+ of approximately 0.5 mM, and a Hill coefficient of below unity indicating the interaction of one Li+ ion with an inhibitory site at fNaDC-3.

Expression cloning and characterization of a novel sodium-dicarboxylate cotransporter from winter flounder kidney.

A cDNA coding for a Na+-dicarboxylate cotransporter, fNaDC-3, from winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) kidney was isolated by functional expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The fNaDC-3 cDNA is 2384 nucleotides long and encodes a protein of 601 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 66.4 kDa. Secondary structure analysis predicts at least eight membrane-spanning domains. Transport of succinate by fNaDC-3 was sodium-dependent, could be inhibited by lithium, and evoked an inward current. The apparent affinity constant (Km) of fNaDC-3 for succinate of 30 microM resembles that of Na+-dicarboxylate transport in the basolateral membrane of mammalian renal proximal tubules. The substrates specific for the basolateral transporter, 2,3-dimethylsuccinate and cis-aconitate, not only inhibited succinate uptake but also evoked inward currents, proving that they are transported by fNaDC-3. Succinate transport via fNaDC-3 decreased by lowering pH, as did citrate transport, although much more moderately. These characteristics suggest that fNaDC-3 is a new type of Na+-dicarboxylate transporter that most likely corresponds to the Na+-dicarboxylate cotransporter in the basolateral membrane of mammalian renal proximal tubules.

NH4+ conductance in Xenopus laevis oocytes.II. Effect Of hypoosmolality.

Superfusing Xenopus laevis oocytes with NH4Cl (10 mmol/l, pH 7.5) resulted in an inward current at a clamp potential of -70 mV. In paired experiments (n=22), the NH4Cl-induced peak current was -293+/-94 nA, under control conditions (osmolality: 240 mosmol/kg), and rose to -523+/-196 nA when osmolality was reduced to 144 mosmol/kg. In parallel with the rise in NH4Cl-induced inward current, membrane conductance at -70 mV doubled and the zero-current potential changed from +3.3+/-9.4 mV to -22.0+/-8.0 mV (n=22) in the presence of NH4Cl during exposure to a hypoosmolar solution. In the absence of NH4Cl, oocytes responded to hypoosmolality with a shift in zero-current potential to more negative values and an increased conductance which became partially sensitive to isosorbiddinitrate (ISDN), suggesting the activation of a volume-sensitive K+ channel. Membrane conductance in the presence of NH4Cl was decreased by ISDN to similar extents under isoosmolal and hypoosmolal conditions, indicating that NH4+ enters the oocytes through a volume-sensitive conductance separate from the ISDN-sensitive K+ channel.

NH4+ conductance in Xenopus laevis oocytes. I. Basic observations.

Current-clamp and voltage-clamp techniques were used to study the effects of NH4+ on the cell membrane conductance in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Superfusing the oocytes with NH4Cl resulted in a depolarization of the oocyte's cell membrane potential and, at a clamp potential of -70 mV, in an inward current. The magnitude of the inward current was proportional to the NH4Cl concentration in the extracellular solution and on membrane potential. The reversal potential, Erev , was -35.5 +/- 11.6 mV under control conditions and -3.1 +/- 11.0 mV (n = 19) in the presence of NH4Cl (10 mmol/l). Superfusion of the oocytes with nominally Ca2+-free solution affected the NH4Cl-evoked response only marginally. Replacement of extracellular Na+ by N-methyl-D-glucamine+ markedly reduced, but did not eliminate, the NH4Cl-sensitive current and shifted the reversal potential to more negative potentials. The NH4Cl-induced current was substantially inhibited by 0.1 mmol/l flufenamate, and was less affected by blockers of the endogenous K+ conductance, Ba2+ and isosorbiddinitrate (ISDN). The results are compatible with the activation of a conductance by NH4Cl for Na+ and NH4+. The mechanism by which NH4Cl activates the conductance remains unknown.

On the mechanism of bicarbonate exit from renal proximal tubular cells.

We compare here the results of electrophysiological measurements on proximal tubular cells performed on rat kidney in vivo and on isolated rabbit and rat tubules in vitro. Based on different effects of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in the in vivo and in vitro preparation, we conclude that NaHCO3 cotransport across the basolateral cell membrane functions as Na(+)-CO3(2-)-HCO3- cotransport in vivo, but as Na(+)-HCO3(-)-HCO3- cotransport in the classical in vitro preparation. The former, but not the latter, transport mode is characterized by generation of local disequilibrium pH/CO3(2-) concentrations that oppose fluxes if membrane-bound carbonic anhydrase is inhibited. In support of this conclusion, we find that overall transport functions with a HCO3- to Na+ stoichiometry of 3:1 in vivo (since each transported CO3(2-) eventually generates 2 HCO3- ions), but 2:1 in vitro. This has been deduced from various measurements, among them super-Nernstian and reverse nernstian, potential responses to changing ion concentrations which are characteristic of obligatorily coupled cation-anion cotransporters, but are not known in classical electrochemistry. The different transport modes in vivo and in vitro suggest that isolated proximal tubules have functional deficits compared to proximal tubules in vivo.

Expression of the human sodium/proton exchanger NHE-1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes enhances sodium/proton exchange activity and establishes sodium/lithium countertransport.

We investigated whether the human sodium/proton (Na+/H+) exchanger isoform 1 (NHE-1) can mediate sodium/lithium (Na+/Li+) countertransport. Using the Xenopus laevis oocyte expression system we determined amiloride-sensitive Li+ uptake, a measure of Na+/H+ exchange, in oocytes injected with water or NHE-1 cRNA. Amiloride-sensitive Li+ uptake was three- to tenfold enhanced over control in NHE-1 cRNA-injected cells and was selectively inhibited by 0.01 microM HOE 694 [i.e. (3-methylsulphonyl-4-piperidinobenzoyl) guanidine methanesulphonate]. The endogenously present Na+/H+ exchanger was insensitive to HOE 694. After acidification of oocytes from pH 7.7 to 6.8, amiloride-sensitive Li+ uptake was four- to tenfold higher in NHE-1 cRNA-injected cells than in controls. Li+ efflux from control oocytes was independent of extracellular Na+, indicating that these cells expressed no measurable Na+/Li+ countertransport activity. In NHE-1 cRNA-injected oocytes, Li+ efflux was distinctly enhanced by extracellular Na+ ions. This Na(+)-dependent Li+ efflux was inhibited by ethylisopropylamiloride, phloretin and by cytosolic acidification. The data show that expression of the NHE-1 in X. laevis oocytes induces the expression of Na+/Li+ countertransport. The data confirm that Na+/H+ exchange and Na+/Li+ countertransport are mediated by the same transport system.

Effect of primary, secondary and tertiary amines on membrane potential and intracellular pH in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

The effects of primary, secondary and tertiary methyl- and ethylamines as well as of quaternary ammonium compounds on membrane potential, Vm, and intracellular pH (pHi) of oocytes from Xenopus laevis were studied using electrophysiological methods. The quaternary ammonium compounds, tetramethyl- (TMA) and tetraethyl- (TEA) ammonium chloride and choline chloride (each 10 mmol/l), affected Vm only slightly. In contrast, primary, secondary and tertiary amines strongly depolarized Vm. Depolarization was inversely proportional to the pKa of the amines. Trimethylamine (pKa 9.8) depolarized Vm by 61.7 +/- 21.8 mV (n = 13) and exerted its half-maximal effect at less than 2 mmol/l. In paired experiments (n = 6), trimethylamine (10 mmol/l) reduced Vm only by 5.1 +/- 1.3 mV at a bath pH of 6.0, but by 73.2 +/- 20.0 mV at pH 7.5, suggesting that the deprotonated, uncharged form of the amines was responsible for the depolarization. pHi measurements using the Fluka pH-sensitive cocktail 95,293 revealed a short initial alkalinization and a subsequent acidification in the presence of trimethylamine (10 mmol/l). The intracellular acidification proceeded much more slowly than the depolarization. As shown by measurements using a two-electrode voltage-clamp device, the depolarization was associated with an inward current. This trimethylamine-sensitive current, delta Im, decreased from -128 +/- 82 nA (n = 4) at a clamp potential Vc = -70 mV to -3 +/- 33 nA at Vc = 0 mV. Neither delta Vm nor delta Im were markedly inhibited by GdCl3, BaCl2, or amiloride (each 1 mmol/l). Only 1 mmol/l diphenylamine-2-carboxylate (DPC) diminished both responses.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Expression of rat renal Na+HCO3-cotransporter in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

The goal of this study was to determine whether Na+HCO3- cotransport from rat renal cortex can be functionally expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Using a two electrode voltage-clamp device, HCO(3-)-dependent currents were determined as the difference in current measured in a nominally HCO(3-)-free buffer, pH 7.5 and a buffer with 30 mmol/l HCO3-, pCO2 5.33 kPa, pH 7.5. The size of renal cortex mRNA required to express maximum HCO(3-)-dependent current was 2-3 kb. The expressed current depended on Na+ and was sensitive to 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) and acetazolamide (each 1 mmol/l), inhibitors known to block the native Na(+)HCO3- cotransporter in several tissues including rat proximal tubule. Water-injected oocytes did not show any measurable response either to increased HCO3- nor to Na(+)-free perfusion or to the inhibitors, indicating the absence of an endogenous electrogenic HCO3-transporter. Our data indicate that the rat renal mRNA of 2-3 kb size contains the message for the Na+HCO3-cotransporter.

Small and maxi K+ channels in the basolateral membrane of isolated crypts from rat distal colon: single-channel and slow whole-cell recordings.

The patch-clamp technique was used to characterize K+ channel activity in the basolateral membrane of isolated crypts from rat distal colon. In cell-attached patches with KCl in the pipette, channels with conductances ranging from 6 pS to 80 pS appeared. With NaCl in the pipette and KCl in the bath in excised inside-out membrane patches a small-conductance channel with a mean conductance of 12 +/- 6 pS (n = 18) was observed. The channel has been identified as K+ channel by its selectivity for K+ over Na+ and by its sensitivity to conventional K+ channel blockers, Ba2+ and tetraethylammonium (TEA+). Changes of cytosolic pH did not attenuate channel activity. Activity of the 12-pS channel was increased by membrane depolarization and elevated cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. In addition, a maxi K+ channel with a mean conductance of 187 +/- 15 pS (n = 4) in symmetrical KCl solutions was only occasionally recorded. The maxi K+ channel could be blocked by Ba2+ (5 mmol/l) on the cytosolic side. Using the slow-whole cell recording technique under control conditions, a cell membrane potential of -70 +/- 10 mV (n = 18) was measured. By application of various K+ channel blockers such as glibenclamide, charybdotoxin, apamin, risotilide, Ba2+ and TEA+ in the bath, only Ba2+ and TEA+ depolarized the cell membrane. The present data suggest that the small K+ channel (12 pS) is involved in the maintenance of the cell membrane resting potential.

Pathways of NH3/NH4+ permeation across Xenopus laevis oocyte cell membrane.

While acid loading with extracellular NH4Cl solutions usually first alkalinizes the cells through NH3 influx, and acidifies only when NH4Cl is removed, Xenopus oocytes became immediately acidic upon NH4Cl addition and the cells did not acidify further upon its removal. Since NH4Cl solutions also collapsed the membrane potential (Vm) and resistance (Rm), we conclude that primarily NH4+ entered the cells where it liberated H+, with NH3 being trapped in intracellular lipid stores. To identify the NH4+ permeation pathway we have used K+ channel blockers (Ba2+, Cs+, tetraethylammonium, quinidine), various cation transport inhibitors (ouabain, bumetanide, amiloride) and other inhibitors, some of which block non-selective cation channels (La3+, diphenylamine-2-carboxylate, and p-chloromercuribenzoate). However, only the latter substances partially prevented the collapse of Vm and Rm. This suggests, that NH4+ passes through non-selective cation channels. In accordance with the voltage dependence and/or stretch activation of such channels NH4+ fluxes appeared to be asymmetric. NH4+ influx, which depolarized and swelled the cells, was large and acidified rapidly, while the efflux, which repolarized and shrank the cells, was slow and alkalinized only slowly.

Proton transport mechanism in the cell membrane of Xenopus laevis oocytes.

Mechanisms of H+ transport across the plasma cell membrane of prophase-arrested oocytes of Xenopus laevis were investigated by testing the effect of ion substitutions and inhibitors on cytoplasmic pH (pHi), membrane potential (Vm) and membrane resistance (Rm). During superfusion with control solution of pH = 7.4, pHi was 7.49 +/- 0.12 (n = 15), Vm was -61.9 +/- 7.8 mV (n = 34) (cytoplasm negative), and Rm was 2.9 +/- 1.5 M omega (n = 19). These data confirm that H+ ions are not distributed at electrochemical equilibrium. By following pHi during recovery of the oocytes from an acid load (20 mmol/l NH4Cl) in the presence and absence of extracellular Na+ or amiloride (1 mmol/l), a Na/H exchanger was identified. On the basis of the known Na+ gradient across the cell membrane, this transporter could suffice to generate the observed H+ disequilibrium distribution. Utilizing blockers or ion-concentration-step experiments no evidence was obtained for an ATP-driven H+ pump or for passive acid/base transporters such as H+ conductances or Na+ (HCO3-)3 cotransport. The membrane depolarization observed in response to extracellular acidification appeared to result from a pH-dependent, Ba(2+)-inhibitable K+ conductance.

Mechanisms of basolateral base transport in the renal proximal tubule.

Renal proximal tubules absorb HCO3- by secretion of H+ into the tubular lumen. This paper focuses on the mechanisms of HCO3- exit across the basolateral cell membrane. The major exit pathway is rheogenic sodium bicarbonate co-transport. This system transports Na+ and HCO3-, but not Cl-, in obligatory coupling at a fixed overall stoichiometry of three HCO3- to one Na+. The fact that HCO3- flux is reduced after inhibition of cytoplasmic and/or membrane-bound peritubular carbonic anhydrase indicates that HCO3- is not transported as such but is split during permeation into its buffer subspecies from which it is regenerated on the other side of the membrane. Since flow of OH- or of H+ (in opposite directions) can be excluded, it appears most likely that one HCO3- and one CO3(2-) move together with one Na+. Besides carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, disulphonic stilbenes and harmaline are known to block the co-transporter. In addition to rheogenic Na+ (HCO3-)3 co-transport, Na+-dependent and Na+-independent electroneutral Cl-/HCO-3 exchange have been identified. The latter mechanisms are particularly important in S3 segments of proximal tubule where Na+ (HCO3-)3 co-transport is missing. Further mechanisms which operate in parallel, but at lower rates, are electroneutral SO4(2-)/HCO3- exchange and, in some species, lactate/HCO3- exchange. Moreover, there may be some uncoupled OH- flux and it is reasonable to assume that OH- (or H+) flux is involved in the transport of dicarboxylic acids across the basolateral cell membrane.

Evidence for OH-/H+ permeation across the peritubular cell membrane of rat renal proximal tubule in HCO3(-)-free solutions.

Membrane potentials and intracellular pH were measured on rat renal proximal tubular cells in vivo to test whether sodium-bicarbonate cotransport across the peritubular cell membrane accepts OH- (or H+ in opposite direction) or whether it requires the CO2, HCO3-, CO3= buffer to operate. It was found that step changes of peritubular pH in nominally HCO3(-)-free and CO2-free solutions produced qualitatively similar initial potential responses and cell pH responses as changes in peritubular HCO3- concentrations. These responses, however, were considerably smaller and they were neither reduced in Na+-free solutions nor inhibited by the stilbene derivative SITS which is known to block Na+ (HCO3-)n cotransport completely. We conclude that the cotransporter requires the CO2, HCO3-, CO3= buffer for its physiological operation but that high rates of OH- or H+ can also be transferred across the peritubular cell membrane in HCO3(-)-free solutions, probably through a separate transport system.

Rheogenic sodium-bicarbonate cotransport in the peritubular cell membrane of rat renal proximal tubule.

The mechanism of bicarbonate transport across the peritubular cell membrane was investigated in rat kidney proximal tubules in situ by measuring cell pH and cell Na+ activity in response to sudden reduction of peritubular Na+ and/or HCO3-. The following observations were made: 1. sudden peritubular reduction of either ion concentration produced the same transient depolarizing potential response; 2. bicarbonate efflux in response to peritubular reduction of bicarbonate was accompanied by sodium efflux; 3. sodium efflux in response to peritubular sodium removal was accompanied by cell acidification indicating bicarbonate efflux; 4. all aforementioned phenomena were inhibited by SITS (10(-3) mol/l) except for a small SITS-independent sodium efflux and depolarization which occurred in response to peritubular sodium removal and was not accompanied by cell pH changes; 5. bicarbonate efflux and accompanying potential changes in response to reduction of peritubular bicarbonate virtually vanished in sodium-free solutions. From these observations we conclude that bicarbonate efflux proceeds as rheogenic sodium-bicarbonate cotransport with a stoichiometry of bicarbonate to sodium greater than 1. The question which of the charged species of the bicarbonate buffer system moves cannot yet be decided. Attempts to determine the stoichiometry from the SITS-inhibitable initial cell depolarization and from the SITS-inhibitable initial fluxes suggest a stoichiometry of 3 HCO3-: 1 Na+. In addition to sodium-dependent bicarbonate flux, evidence was obtained for a sodium-independent transport system of acids or bases which is able to regulate cell pH even in sodium-free solutions.

Electrophysiological analysis of bicarbonate permeation across the peritubular cell membrane of rat kidney proximal tubule. I. Basic observations.

The membrane potential response of proximal tubular cells to changing HCO3- concentrations was measured in micro-puncture experiments on rat kidney in vivo. No significant effect was noticed when luminal bicarbonate concentration was changed. Changing peritubular HCO3- by substitution with Cl- resulted in conspicuous membrane potential transients, which reached peak values after 100-200 ms and decayed towards near control with time constants of approximately 2 s. The polarity of the potential changes and the dependence of the initial potential deflections on the logarithm of HCO3- concentration suggest a high conductance of the peritubular cell membrane for HCO3- buffer, but not for Cl-, SO4(2-) or isethionate. At constant pH, tHCO3- was estimated to amount to approximately 0.68. At constant pCO2, tHCO3- was even greater because of an additional effect of OH- or respectively H+ gradients across the cell membrane. The secondary repolarization may be explained by passive net movements of K+ and HCO3- across the peritubular cell membrane, which result in a readjustment of intracellular HCO3- to the altered peritubular HCO3- concentration. Application of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in the tubular lumen reduced the initial potential response by one half and doubled the repolarization time constant. The same effect occurred instantaneously when the inhibitor was applied - together with the HCO3- concentration step - in the peritubular perfusate. This observation demonstrates that membrane bound carbonic anhydrase is somehow involved in passive rheogenic bicarbonate transfer across the peritubular cell membrane, and suggests that HCO3- permeation might occur in form of CO2 and OH- (or H+ in opposite direction).

Electrophysiological analysis of bicarbonate permeation across the peritubular cell membrane of rat kidney proximal tubule. II. Exclusion of HCO3(-)-effects on other ion permeabilities and of coupled electroneutral HCO3(-)-transport.

Cell membrane potentials of rat kidney proximal tubules were measured in response to peritubular ion substitutions in vivo with conventional and Cl- sensitive microelectrodes in order to test possible alternative explanations of the bicarbonate dependent cell potential transients reported in the preceding paper. Significant direct effects of bicarbonate on peritubular K+, Na+, and Cl- conductances could be largely excluded by blocking K+ permeability with Ba2+ and replacing all Na+ and Cl- by choline or respectively SO4(2-) isethionate, or gluconate. Under those conditions the cell membrane response to HCO3- was essentially preserved. In addition it was observed that peritubular Cl- conductance is negligibly small, that Cl-/HCO3- exchange - if present at all - is insignificant, and that rheogenic HCO3- flow with coupling to Na+ flow is also absent or insignificant. A transient disturbance of the Na+ pump or a transient unspecific increase of the membrane permeability was also excluded by experiments with ouabain and by the observation that SITS (4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyano-2,2' disulphonic stilbene) blocked the HCO3- response instantaneously. The data strongly support the notion that the potential changes in response to peritubular HCO3- concentration changes arise from passive rheogenic bicarbonate transfer across the peritubular cell membrane, and hence that this membrane has a high conductance for bicarbonate buffer.

Electrically silent cotransport on Na+, K+ and Cl- in Ehrlich cells.

A cotransport system for Na+, K+ and Cl- in Ehrlich cells is described. It is insensitive towards ouabain but specifically inhibited by furosemide and other 'high ceiling' diuretics at concentrations which do not affect other pathways of the ions concerned. As the furosemide-sensitive fluxes of these ions are no affected by changes in membrane potential, and as their complete inhibition by furosemide does not appreciably alter the membrane potential, they appear to be electrically silent. Application of the pulse-response methods in terms of irreversible thermodynamics reveals tight coupling between the furosemide-sensitive flows of Na+, K+ and Cl- (q close to unity for all three combinations) at a stoichiometry of 1: 1 : 2. The site for each of the ions appears to be rather specific: K+ can be replaced by Rb+ but not by other cations tested whereas Cl- can be poorly replaced by Br- but not by NO(-)3, in contradistinction to the Cl(-)-OH- exchange system. The cotransport system appears to function in cell volume regulatin as it tends to make the cell swell, thus counteracting the shrinking effect of the ouabain-sensitive (Na+, K+) pump. The experiments presented could not clarify whether the cotransport process is a primary or secondary active one; while incongruence between transport and conjugated driving force seems to indicate primary active transport, it is very unlikely that hydrolysis of ATP supplies energy for the transport process, since thre is not stimulation of ATP turnover observable under operation of the cotransport system.