Purified deoxynivalenol or feed restriction reduces mortality in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), with experimental bacterial coldwater disease but biologically relevant concentrations of deoxynivalenol do not impair the growth of Flavobacterium psychrophilum.

Diets containing deoxynivalenol (DON) were fed to rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) for 4 weeks followed by experimental infection (intraperitoneal) with Flavobacterium psychrophilum (4.1 × 10(6) colony-forming units [CFU] mL(-1) ). Mortality of rainbow trout fed either 6.4 mg kg(-1) DON or trout pair-fed the control diet was significantly reduced (P < 0.05) in comparison with trout fed the control diet to apparent satiation (<0.1 mg kg(-1) DON). In a second experiment, trout were fed one of three experimental diets; a control diet, a diet produced with corn naturally contaminated with DON (3.3 mg kg(-1) DON) or a diet containing purified DON (3.8 mg kg(-1) ); however, these fish were not experimentally infected. The presence of DON resulted in significant reduction (P < 0.0001) in feed intake as well as weight gain after 4 weeks. Respiratory burst of head-kidney leucocytes isolated from rainbow trout fed diets containing purified DON (3.8 mg kg(-1) ) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) at 35 day post-exposure compared with controls. The antimicrobial activity of DON was examined by subjecting F. psychrophilum in vitro to serial dilutions of the chemical. Complete inhibition occurred at a concentration of 75 mg L(-1) DON, but no effect was observed below this concentration (0-30 mg L(-1) ).

The effect of diet on ontogenic development of the digestive tract in juvenile reared long snout seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus.

Ontogenetic development of the digestive tract and associated organs in long snout seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus juveniles was morphologically and histologically examined from the time of release from the male's pouch until 72 h after the first meal. When released from the male's pouch, juvenile seahorses are small adult replicates. This means that unlike other teleost fish larvae, the first developmental phase has already taken place, and juveniles are morphologically prepared and able to feed on live prey immediately following parturition. At this stage, the buccopharynx, oesophagus, and intestine already appear to be fully developed. The intestine is divided into the midgut and hindgut by an intestinal valve, and intestinal villi are visible in the midgut. When fed with DHA-Selco(®) enriched Artemia, H. guttulatus juveniles developed a severe condition of overinflation of the gas bladder. The continuous overinflation of the gas bladder forced air into the gut (48 h after the first meal), resulting in overinflation of both the gut and the gas bladder (72 h after the first meal), and death occurred within 120 h after the first meal. When fed natural copepods, H. guttulatus juveniles continued a normal feeding activity with no signs of intestinal disorders, and the gas bladder and intestine maintained their normal shape. This is the first study to positively associate gas bladder overinflation of juvenile seahorses with nutritionally unbalanced diets, and not to gas supersaturation alone. It is therefore necessary to develop more adequate feed and/or enrichment products to improve the survival of juvenile seahorses in captivity.

Dietary lipid quality and mitochondrial membrane composition in trout: responses of membrane enzymes and oxidative capacities.

To examine whether membrane fatty acid (FA) composition has a greater impact upon specific components of oxidative phosphorylation or on overall properties of muscle mitochondria, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were fed two diets differing only in FA composition. Diet 1 was enriched in 18:1n-9 and 18:2n-6 while Diet 2 was enriched in 22:6n-3. The FA composition of mitochondrial phospholipids was strongly affected by diet. 22:6n-3 levels were twice as high (49%) in mitochondrial phospholipids of fish fed Diet 2 than in those fed Diet 1. 18:2n-6 content of the phospholipids also followed the diets, whereas 18:1n-9 changed little. All n-6 FA, most notably 22:5n-6, were significantly higher in fish fed Diet 1. Nonetheless, total saturated FA, total monounsaturated FA and total polyunsaturated FA in mitochondrial phospholipids varied little. Despite a marked impact of diet on specific FA levels in mitochondrial phospholipids, only non-phosphorylating (state 4) rates were higher in fish fed Diet 2. Phosphorylating rates (state 3), oxygen consumption due to flux through the electron transport chain complexes as well as the corresponding spectrophotometric activities did not differ with diet. Body mass affected state 4 rates and cytochrome c oxidase and F 0 F 1 ATPase activities while complex I showed a diet-specific effect of body mass. Only the minor FA that were affected by body mass were correlated with functional properties. The regulated incorporation of dietary FA into phospholipids seems to allow fish to maintain critical membrane functions even when the lipid quality of their diets varies considerably, as is likely in their natural environment.

Organically bound tritium (OBT) formation in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): HTO and OBT-spiked food exposure experiments.

In order to determine the rate of organically bound tritium (OBT) formation, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to tritiated water (HTO) or OBT-spiked food. The HTO (in water) exposure study was conducted using a tritium activity concentration of approximately 7000 Bq/L and the OBT (in food) exposure study was conducted using a tritium activity concentration of approximately 30,000 Bq/L. Fish in both studies were expected to be exposed to similar tritium levels assuming 25% incorporation of the tritiated amino acids found in the food. Four different sampling campaigns of HTO exposure (Day 10, 30, 70, 140) and five different sampling campaigns of OBT-spiked food exposure (Day 9, 30, 70, 100, 140) were conducted to measure HTO and OBT activity concentrations in fish tissues. OBT depuration was also evaluated over a period of 30 days following the 140 d exposure studies. The results suggested that the OBT formation rate was slower when the fish were exposed to HTO compared to when the fish were ingesting OBT. In addition, the results indicated that OBT can bioaccumulate in fish tissues following OBT-spiked food exposure.

Dietary fatty acid composition changes mitochondrial phospholipids and oxidative capacities in rainbow trout red muscle.

Dietary conditioning of juvenile trout changed the acyl chain composition of mitochondrial phospholipids and the oxidative capacities of muscle mitochondria. Trout were fed three diets differing only in fatty acid (FA) composition. The highly unsaturated 22:6 n-3 (DHA) accounted for 0.4, 14, and 30% of fatty acids in Diets 1, 2 and 3. After 10 weeks of growth, the dietary groups differed markedly in FA composition of mitochondrial phospholipids, with significant dietary effects for virtually all FA. Mean mitochondrial DHA levels were 19, 40 and 33% in trout fed Diets 1, 2 and 3. Mitochondrial oxidative capacities changed with diet, while mitochondrial concentrations of cytochromes and of the adenylate nucleotide translocase (nmol mg(1) protein) did not. Mitochondria from fish fed Diet 1 had higher non-phosphorylating (state 4) rates at 5 degrees C than those fed other diets. When phosphorylating (state 3) rates differed between dietary groups, rates at 5 and 15 degrees C were higher for fish fed the more unsaturated diets. Stepwise multiple regressions indicated that FA composition could explain much (42-70%) of the variability of state 4 rates, particularly at 5 degrees C. At 15 degrees C, FA composition explained 16-42% of the variability of states 3 and 4 rates. Similar conclusions were obtained for the complete data set (trout fed diets 1, 2 and 3) and for the data from trout achieving similar growth rates (e.g. those fed Diets 1 and 2). Neither general characteristics of membrane FA, such as % saturates, unsaturation index, n-3, n-6 or n-3/n-6 nor levels of abundant unsaturated FA such as DHA or 18:1(n-9 + n-7), were systematically correlated with mitochondrial capacities even though they differed considerably between trout fed the different diets. Relatively minor FA (20:5n-3, 20:0, 18:2n-6, 18:3n-3, 18:0 and 15:0) showed better correlations with mitochondrial oxidative capacities. This supports the concept that acyl chain composition modulates mitochondrial capacities via interactions between membrane proteins and specific FA of particular phospholipid classes in their microenvironment.

Effect of DHA supplementation on digestible starch utilization by rainbow trout.

Rainbow trout has a limited ability to utilize digestible carbohydrates efficiently. Trout feeds generally contain high levels of DHA, a fatty acid known to inhibit a number of glycolytic and lipogenic enzymes in animals. A study was conducted to determine whether carbohydrate utilization by rainbow trout might be affected by dietary DHA level. Two low-carbohydrate (<4 % digestible carbohydrate) basal diets were formulated to contain 1 (adequate) or 4 (excess) g/100 g DHA diet respectively. The two basal diets were diluted with increasing levels of digestible starch (0 %, 10 %, 20 % and 30 %, respectively) to produce eight diets. These diets were fed to fish for 12 weeks at 15 degrees C according to a pair-fed protocol that consisted of feeding the same amount of basal diet but different amounts of starch. Live weight, N and lipid gains, hepatic glycogen and plasma glucose values significantly increased, whereas feed efficiency (gain:feed) significantly decreased, with increasing starch intake (P<0.05). The retention efficiency of N (N gain/digestible N intake) improved with starch supplementation but was not affected by DHA level (P>0.05). Starch increased the activity of glucokinase, pyruvate kinase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and fatty acid synthase (P<0.05) but did not affect hexokinase and malic enzyme activity. DHA had no effect on growth but increased plasma glucose and reduced carcass lipid and liver glycogen contents (P<0.05). Glycolytic and lipogenic enzymes were not affected by DHA level, except for pyruvate kinase, which was reduced by increasing DHA level. These results suggest only a marginal effect of dietary DHA on the ability of fish to utilize carbohydrate.

Comparing efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) using factorial and multivariate approaches.

A study was conducted to compare utilization of ME for growth vs. maintenance in rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon. Fish were hand-fed to satiation one of four isoenergetic diets (DE = 20 MJ/kg, as-fed basis) with different digestible protein (DP) to DE ratios (24, 22, 20, and 18 g/MJ). Intake of ME (kJ/d), energy deposited as protein (PD, kJ/d), and energy deposited as lipid (LD, kJ/d) were determined by a comparative slaughter technique. Data were analyzed by a factorial approach or by multivariate analysis of PD and LD on ME. Maintenance energy requirements (ME(m)) and efficiency of ME utilization for PD (k(p)) and LD (k(f)) were estimated with both approaches. For the multivariate analysis, an additional parameter, the fraction of ME intake above maintenance used for PD (X) was defined as linear function of BW, with slope (d) and intercept (c) estimated simultaneously with the above parameters. Estimates were highly dependent on the approach and assumptions used. The ME(m) and k(p) values were higher and less accurate with the factorial approach than with multivariate analysis. The factorial approach estimated unrealistic k(f) values (k(f) > 1). With the multivariate analysis, ME(m) did not differ between species (20 kJ x d(-1) x kg(-0.8)). On the other hand, k(p) was significantly higher (e.g., 0.52 +/- 0.06 vs. 0.43 +/- 0.06; P < 0.05) for salmon than for trout and independent of diet, but k(f) was 0.81 (+/-0.13) regardless of species or diet. The ME intake above ME(m) used for PD (c) was higher in salmon than trout (57 vs. 55%; P < 0.05). The change in partitioning of ME for PD due to the change in BW was negative for trout (d = -0.18), but positive for salmon (d = 0.16). The d values agreed well with the increase of LD:PD ratio with BW for trout and the decrease of LD:PD with BW for salmon, which may have been related to the maturation status of this fish and the associated loss of body lipid observed by maturing salmon. In conclusion, ME(m) and cost of LD were similar for rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon, but the cost of PD was lower for salmon than for trout.