Improved Intraoperative Fluoroscopy for Pelvic and Acetabular Surgery.

Over the past 3 decades, the evolution of pelvic and acetabular surgery has been supported by the advances in intraoperative pelvic fluoroscopic imaging technology. The new Ziehm RFD 3D C-arm unit provides routine fluoroscopic pelvic imaging but also offers rapid and high-quality real-time axial, sagittal, and coronal intraoperative imaging. This technology allows the surgeon to accurately assess fracture reduction, loose body removal, and implant locations while the patient is still under anesthesia. In this way, any necessary corrections can be performed before the patient leaves the operating room. Essentially, this technology should eliminate the need for revision surgeries. In this report, we present our initial experience using this new device.

Scapulothoracic Dissociation: Evaluation and Management.

Scapulothoracic dissociation is a rare, potentially limb- and life-threatening injury of the shoulder girdle. The injury is characterized by lateral displacement of the scapula resulting from traumatic disruption of the scapulothoracic articulation. The typical physical examination findings consist of substantial swelling of the shoulder girdle, along with weakness, numbness, and pulselessness in the ipsilateral upper extremity. Radiographic evaluation includes measurement of the scapular index on a nonrotated chest radiograph and assessment for either a distracted clavicle fracture or a disrupted acromioclavicular or sternoclavicular joint. Although vascular injury occurs in most patients, emergent surgery is performed only in patients with either limb-threatening ischemia or active arterial hemorrhage. Management of neurologic injury can be delayed if necessary. The location and severity of neurologic injury determine whether observation, nerve grafting, nerve transfer, or above-elbow amputation is performed. Skeletal stabilization procedures include plate fixation of clavicle fractures and reduction of distracted acromioclavicular or sternoclavicular joints. The extent of neurologic injury determines clinical outcomes. Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short Form scores are significantly lower in patients with complete brachial plexus avulsion injury than in patients with postganglionic injury.

Comparison of tissue-interface pressure in healthy subjects lying on two trauma splinting devices: The vacuum mattress splint and long spine board.

BACKGROUND: Most emergency transport protocols in the United States currently call for the use of a spine board (SB) to help immobilize the trauma patient. However, there are concerns that their use is associated with a risk of pressure ulcer development. An alternative device, the vacuum mattress splint (VMS) has been shown by previous investigations to be a viable alternative to the SB, but no single study has explicated the tissue-interface pressure in depth. METHODS: To determine if the VMS will exert less pressure on areas of the body susceptible to pressure ulcers than a SB we enrolled healthy subjects to lie on the devices in random order while pressure measurements were recorded. Sensors were placed underneath the occiput, scapulae, sacrum, and heels of each subject lying on each device. Three parameters were used to analyze differences between the two devices: 1) mean pressure of all active cells, 2) number of cells exceeding 9.3kPa, and 3) maximal pressure (Pmax). RESULTS: In all regions, there was significant reduction in the mean pressure of all active cells in the VMS. In the number of cells exceeding 9.3kPa, we saw a significant reduction in the sacrum and scapulae in the VMS, no difference in the occiput, and significantly more cells above this value in the heels of subjects on the VMS. Pmax was significantly reduced in all regions, and was less than half when examining the sacrum (104.3 vs. 41.8kPa, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: This study does not exclude the possibility of pressure ulcer development in the VMS although there was a significant reduction in pressure in the parameters we measured in most areas. These results indicate that the VMS may reduce the incidence and severity of pressure ulcer development compared to the SB. Further prospective trials are needed to determine if these results will translate into better clinical outcomes.

Importance of Pelvic Radiography for Initial Trauma Assessment: An Orthopedic Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Many institutions have abandoned the routine for selective pelvic x-ray (PXR) for initial imaging in blunt trauma patients undergoing computed tomography (CT) scanning. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to examine the association between selective use of PXR and time to diagnosis of (major) pelvic fractures, as well as prioritization of key immediate interventions (including hip reduction and pelvic arterial embolization). METHODS: We conducted a 1-year review of early management of pelvic fracture patients undergoing pelvic CT scanning. Time interval and sequence of initial imaging and key immediate interventions were recorded. RESULTS: Of 218 pelvic fracture patients, 79 (36%) had no initial PXR, and instead had an initial CT scan. Time to first pelvic imaging in those patients was 48 min (standard deviation [SD] = 47 min vs. 2 min [SD = 6 min] with PXR; p < 0.001). Of 40 hip dislocations, 15 (38%) were detected first on CT scan. Overall, 22 (55%) required a second CT scan after reduction in the emergency department. No initial PXR was performed in 42 of 120 (35%) pelvic ring fracture patients and in 16 of 61 (26%) unstable pelvic ring fractures. Time to pelvic arterial embolization was longer in 4 patients without initial PXR than in 14 patients with PXR (296 min [SD = 206 min] vs. 170 min [SD = 76 min], respectively, p = 0.038). CONCLUSIONS: Selective PXR was associated with a significant delay in recognition of (major) pelvic fractures, including those with associated hip dislocations and (potential) pelvic bleeding. PXR remains a useful screening tool to rapidly determine the need for immediate interventions and to allow early planning before CT scanning.

Imaging comparison of pelvic ring disruption and injury reduction with use of the junctional emergency treatment tool for preinjury and postinjury pelvic dimensions: a cadaveric study with computed tomography.

OBJECTIVE: Complex dismounted blast injuries from (improvised) explosive devices have caused amputations of the lower extremities associated with open injuries to the pelvic ring, resulting in life-threatening hemorrhage from disruption of blood vessels near the pelvic ring. Provisional stabilization of the skeletal pelvis by circumferential pelvic compression provides stability for intrapelvic clots and reduces the volume of the pelvis, thereby limiting the amount of hemorrhage. The Junctional Emergency Treatment Tool (JETTtm; North American Rescue Products, http://www.narescue.com) is a junctional hemorrhage control device developed to treat pelvic and lower extremity injuries sustained in high-energy trauma on the battlefield and in the civilian environment. Our purpose was to evaluate the compressive function of the JETT in the reduction of pelvic ring injuries in a cadaveric model. METHODS: Radiographic comparison of pre (intact) and post pelvic ring disruption and injury was compared with radiographic measurements post reduction with the JETT device in two cadavers. The device's ability to reduce pelvic disruption and injury in a human cadaver model was assessed through measurements of the anteroposterior (AP) and transverse diameters obtained at the inlet and outlet of the pelvis. RESULTS: Computed tomography (CT) scans demonstrated that JETT application effectively induced circumferential soft tissue compression that was evoked near anatomic reduction of the sacroiliac joint and symphysis pubis. CONCLUSIONS: The JETT is capable of effectively reducing an AP compression type III injury (APC III) pelvic ring disruption and injury by approximating the inlet and outlet dimensions toward predisruption measurements. Such a degree of reduction suggests that the JETT device may be suitable in the acute setting for provisional pelvic stabilization.

"Push-past" reaming as a reduction aid with intramedullary nailing of metadiaphyseal and diaphyseal femoral shaft fractures.

Eccentric reaming of cortical bone near a fracture site can introduce malalignment when an intramedullary nail is placed. The authors describe a technique of reaming metadiaphyseal and diaphyseal femur fractures in which maintaining reduction at the fracture site is not necessary to obtain an excellent alignment of long bone fractures after intramedullary nailing. They have found that central reaming proximal and distal to, but not at, the fracture site allows for excellent reduction of long bone fractures when the intramedullary nail is passed. The reamer is stopped just before the fracture site and then "pushed" across the fracture prior to resumption of reaming. The authors present "push-past" reaming as a technical trick to facilitate reduction of femoral fractures treated with intramedullary nails and a consecutive series of 18 cases in which excellent postoperative alignment was achieved.

Opportunities for knowledge translation in the decade of road traffic safety.

The United Nations has identified road traffic safety as an important objective for the decade 2011-2020. It has implemented a 5-tiered program: improving health care services, improving management of road safety, improving road network safety, improving vehicular safety, and improving road safety legislation. A small body of practical research has been generated by the medical and surgical (including orthopaedic) communities regarding the road traffic safety, but a substantial amount of work remains to be performed. This article will review published research in each of the 5 tiers of the Decade of Action for Road Traffic Safety and will identify areas where research is insufficient or absent, such that new research programming and funding can be developed.

Assessment of pelvic fractures resulting from the 2010 Haiti earthquake: opportunities for improved care.

BACKGROUND: On January 12, 2010, a catastrophic 7.0 magnitude earthquake shook the Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince. Because of their sudden and destructive nature, earthquakes can result in unfamiliar mass casualty situations accompanied by devastating orthopedic injuries. Evaluation of the pelvic fractures resulting from this earthquake revealed several factors that we hope will facilitate optimal preparation and planning for future disaster situations. METHODS: A cohort of patients with earthquake-related pelvic ring fractures who were treated aboard the USNS Comfort was retrospectively analyzed. Anteroposterior radiographs of the pelvis were evaluated and categorized according to the Young-Burgess classification system. RESULTS: Sixty-eight patients were included in the cohort. The mean (SD) age was 29.6 (14.4) years. Nineteen patients (29.7%) were male, and 49 (70.3%) were female. Pelvic fractures were categorized as anteroposterior compression in 7 patients, lateral compression (LC) in 47 patients, vertical shear (VS) in 8 patients, and combination of pelvic ring/acetabulum in 6 patients. Among the 23 patients treated operatively, the mean (SD) delay from injury to surgery was 19.2 (7.4) days. CONCLUSION: Patients showed predominance toward LC injuries (69.1%), consistent with crush under rubble. Thirty-one percent of the fractures were considered unstable (anteroposterior compression Type III, LC Type III, VS, and combination of pelvic ring/acetabulum). The VS injuries observed (11.8%) may be the result of a previously unidentified injury mechanism, an upright individual being struck by falling rubble, violently applying a downward force to the body over an extended lower extremity. A substantial delay in the treatment observed in this series may lead to an underestimation of both quantity and severity of pelvic fractures as critically ill patients may have perished before evaluation and treatment. In addition, the application of pelvic sheeting techniques may be a lifesaving intervention for interval pelvic stabilization following earthquakes in which medical resources are scarce. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic study, level III; therapeutic study, level V.

Are we delivering two standards of care for pelvic trauma? Availability of angioembolization after hours and on weekends increases time to therapeutic intervention.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that patients with pelvic fractures and hemorrhage admitted during daytime hours were undergoing interventional radiology (IR) earlier than those admitted at night and on weekends, thereby establishing two standards of time to hemorrhage control. METHODS: The trauma registry (January 2008 to December 2011) was reviewed for patients admitted with pelvic fractures, hemorrhagic shock, and transfusion of at least 1 U of blood. The control group (DAY) was admitted from 7:30 AM to 5:30 PM Monday to Friday, while the study group (after hours [AHR]) was admitted from 5:30 PM to 7:30 AM, on weekends or holidays. RESULTS: A total of 191 patients met the criteria (45 DAY, 146 AHR); 103 died less than 24 hours and without undergoing IR (29% DAY group vs. 62% AHR, p < 0.001). Sixteen patients (all in AHR group) died while awaiting IR (p = 0.032). Eighty-eight patients (32 DAY, 56 AHR) survived to receive IR. Among these, the AHR group were younger (median, 30 years vs. 54 years; p = 0.007), more tachycardic (median pulse, 119 beats/min vs. 90 beats/min; p = 0.001), and had more profound shock (median base, -10 vs. -6; p = 0.006) on arrival. Time from admission to IR (median, 301 minutes vs. 193 minutes; p < 0.001) and computed tomographic scan to IR (176 minutes vs. 87 minutes, p = 0.011) were longer in the AHR group. There was no difference in the 30-day mortality by univariate analysis. However, after controlling for age, arrival physiology, injury severity, and degree of shock, the AHR group had a 94% increased risk of mortality. CONCLUSION: The current study demonstrated that patients admitted at night and on weekends have a significant increase in time to angioembolization compared with those arriving during the daytime and during the week. Multivariate regression noted that AHR management was associated with an almost 100% increase in mortality. While this is a single-center study and retrospective in nature, it suggests that we are currently delivering two standards of care for pelvic trauma, depending on the day and time of admission. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level II.

Pelvic fractures: part 1. Evaluation, classification, and resuscitation.

Pelvic fractures range in severity from low-energy, generally benign lateral compression injuries to life-threatening, unstable fracture patterns. Initial management of severe pelvic fractures should follow Advanced Trauma Life Support protocols. Initial reduction of pelvic blood loss can be provided by binders, sheets, or some form of external fixation, which serve to reduce pelvic volume, stabilize clot formation, and reduce ongoing tissue damage. Persistently unstable patients may benefit from angiography with selective embolization, pelvic packing, or a combination of these interventions. Open pelvic fractures involving the perineum or bowel injury benefit from fecal diversion by colostomy. Trauma team coordination facilitates efficient resuscitative efforts and may affect definitive management by optimizing incision, ostomy, or catheter placement. Established protocols for both open and closed pelvic fractures help to standardize care.

Pelvic fractures: part 2. Contemporary indications and techniques for definitive surgical management.

Once the patient with pelvic fracture is resuscitated and stabilized, definitive surgical management and anatomic restoration of the pelvic ring become the goal. Understanding injury pattern by stress examination with the patient under anesthesia helps elucidate the instability. Early fixation of the unstable pelvis is important for mobilization, pain control, and prevention of chronic instability or deformity. Current pelvic fracture management employs a substantial amount of percutaneous reduction and fixation, with less emphasis placed on pelvic reconstruction proceeding from posterior to anterior, and most reduction and fixation of unstable pelvic fractures done with the patient supine. Compared with control subjects with acetabular fracture or pelvic fracture alone, patients with combined injury have a significantly higher Injury Severity Score, lower systolic blood pressure, and higher mortality rates; they are also transfused more packed red blood cells. Even with anatomic restoration of the pelvis, long-term outcomes after severe pelvic trauma are below population norms. The most common chronic problems relate to sexual dysfunction and pain. Regardless of fracture type, neurologic injury is a universal harbinger of poor outcome.

Early femur fracture fixation is associated with a reduction in pulmonary complications and hospital charges: a decade of experience with 1,376 diaphyseal femur fractures.

BACKGROUND: Early fixation (<24 hour) of femur fractures with an intramedullary nail (IMN) has been associated with a decreased incidence of pulmonary complication (PC) in stable trauma patients. Early fixation is in accordance with the "two-hit" hypothesis, that is, an increase in proinflammatory markers during Days 3 to 5 after injury, increases the risk of developing a PC. We hypothesized that early IMN fixation of femur fractures would be associated with a decreased incidence of PC, hospital stay, and overall charges. METHODS: A retrospective review of all trauma patients with diaphyseal femur fractures was performed from January 2000 through December 2010 at an academic Level 1 trauma center. The cohort was divided into those who underwent early fixation (<24 hours) and delayed fixation (≥24 hours). Multivariable logistic regression modeling was used to adjust for the anatomic (Injury Severity Score [ISS]) and physiologic (Revised Trauma Score [RTS]) severity of injury. The primary outcome of interest was PC, defined as the presence of pneumonia (PNA), pulmonary embolism, or adult respiratory distress syndrome. Continuous variables are expressed as mean (SD). The analysis was repeated for patients with an ISS of greater than 15 and an ISS of greater than 25. RESULTS: During the study period, 1,755 patients were admitted with a diaphyseal femur fracture, of whom 1,376 patients underwent primary IMN. A total of 1,032 (75%) underwent early fixation (median, 7.4 hours; interquartile range [IQR], 3.7-12.9 hours), and 344 (25%) underwent delayed fixation (median, 40.9 hours; IQR, 31.0-64.9 hours). The early fixation group had lower ISS (median [IQR], 10 [10-19] vs. 17.5 [10-27]; p < 0.001) and a higher RTS (median [IQR], 7.84 [7.84-7.84] vs. 7.84 [7.84-7.84]; p < 0.001). PC were reduced in the early fixation group, (3.9% vs. 13.4%, p < 0.001). Specifically, there was a decreased incidence of PNA (2% vs. 11%, p < 0.001), pulmonary embolism (2% vs. 4%, p < 0.21), and adult respiratory distress syndrome (0.002% vs. 0.02%, p < 0.001). After adjustment for anatomic (ISS) and physiologic (RTS) indices of injury severity, early fixation was independently associated with a reduction in PC (odds ratio, 0.43; 95% confidence interval, 0.25-0.72; p = 0.002). The early fixation group also had a decrease in hospital length of stay (median [IQR], 6 [4-11] vs. 10 [6-17]; p < 0.001), ventilator days (median [IQR], 0 [0-0] vs. 0 [0-4]; p < 0.001), and hospital charges (median [IQR], $59,561 [$38,618-$106,780] vs. $97,018 [48,249-205,570]; p < 0.001). Mortality was low in both groups (0.4% vs. 1.7%, p < 0.01). Similar results were seen in patients with an ISS of greater than 15 and ISS of greater than 25. CONCLUSION: Controlling for anatomic and physiologic severity of injury, early femoral IMN was associated with an almost 60% reduction in odds of developing PCs. Early fixation was also associated with a reduction ventilator days, hospital length of stay, and overall hospital charges. As the list of "never events" continues to expand and improving quality of care while reducing costs is emphasized, early (<24 hours) definitive operative intervention seems to decrease complications, achieve early hospital discharge, and reduce hospital charges. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level IV.

Health-care costs associated with amputation or reconstruction of a limb-threatening injury.

BACKGROUND: Recent reports have suggested that functional outcomes are similar following either amputation or reconstruction of a severely injured lower extremity. The goal of this study was to compare two-year direct health-care costs and projected lifetime health-care costs associated with these two treatment pathways. METHODS: Two-year health-care costs were estimated for 545 patients with a unilateral limb-threatening lower-extremity injury treated at one of eight level-I trauma centers. Included in the calculation were costs related to (1) the initial hospitalization, (2) all rehospitalizations for acute care related to the limb injury, (3) inpatient rehabilitation, (4) outpatient doctor visits, (5) outpatient physical and occupational therapy, and (6) purchase and maintenance of prosthetic devices. All dollar figures were inflated to constant 2002 dollars with use of the medical service Consumer Price Index. To estimate projected lifetime costs, the number of expected life years was multiplied by an estimate of future annual health-care costs and added to an estimate of future costs associated with the purchase and maintenance of prosthetic devices. RESULTS: When costs associated with rehospitalizations and post-acute care were added to the cost of the initial hospitalization, the two-year costs for reconstruction and amputation were similar. When prosthesis-related costs were added, there was a substantial difference between the two groups ($81,316 for patients treated with reconstruction and $91,106 for patients treated with amputation). The projected lifetime health-care cost for the patients who had undergone amputation was three times higher than that for those treated with reconstruction ($509,275 and $163,282, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: These estimates add support to previous conclusions that efforts to improve the rate of successful reconstructions have merit. Not only is reconstruction a reasonable goal at an experienced level-I trauma center, it results in lower lifetime costs.

Early predictors of long-term work disability after major limb trauma.

BACKGROUND: A better understanding of the factors influencing return to work (RTW) after major limb trauma is essential in reducing the high costs associated with these injuries. METHODS: Patients (n = 423) who underwent amputation or reconstruction after limb threatening lower extremity trauma and who were working before the injury were prospectively evaluated at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 84 months. Time to first RTW was assessed. For individuals working at 84 months, the percentage of time limited in performance at work was estimated using the Work Limitations Questionnaire. RESULTS: Estimates of the cumulative proportion returning to work at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 84 months were 0.12, 0.28, 0.42, 0.51, and 0.58. Patients working at 84 months were, on average, limited in their ability to perform the demands of their job 20 to 25% of the time. In the context of a Cox proportional hazards model, differences in RTW outcomes by treatment (amputation versus reconstruction) were not statistically significant. Factors that were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with higher rates of RTW include younger age, being White, higher education, being a nonsmoker, average to high self efficacy, preinjury job tenure, higher job involvement, and no litigation. Early (3 month) assessments of pain and physical functioning were significant predictors of RTW. CONCLUSIONS: Return to work after severe lower extremity trauma remains a challenge. Although the causal pathway from injury to impairment and work disability is complex, this study points to several factors that influence RTW that suggest strategies for intervention.

Innominosacral dissociation: mechanism of injury as a predictor of resuscitation requirements, morbidity, and mortality.

OBJECTIVES: To assess mechanism of injury as a clinical course predictor in patients with complete anterior and posterior pelvic ring disruptions [innominosacral dissociation (ISD)]. DESIGN: Retrospective review of radiographs and medical data. SETTING: R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center, Baltimore, Maryland, statewide trauma center. PATIENTS: Forty-three patients with ISD were admitted to our institution between August 1986 and October 1991. Five patients were excluded because of incomplete medical records or refusal of blood transfusion. INTERVENTION: Injuries were grouped according to the Young classification: 18 anteroposterior compression (APC), 14 vertical shear (VS), and 6 other injuries. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: The mean blood replacement requirements, incidence of multiple organ system failure, mortality rate, and length of hospital stay for each injury classification were compared. RESULTS: The mean ISS was 34, and the mean 24-hour packed red blood cell transfusion requirement was 12.6 units. Thirteen patients (34.4%) developed multisystem organ failure. Eight patients (21%) died. Patients in the APC group were more likely to require > or = 10 units of blood (15/18, p = 0.001, and those in the VS group were more likely to receive <10 units (11/14, p = 0.0014). Multisystem organ failure occurred more frequently (11/18 versus 2/14; p < 0.005), mortality was significantly higher (39 versus 0%, respectively; p = 0.01), and mean hospital stay for survivors was longer (48 versus 27 days; p < 0.025) in the APC than in the VS group, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that mechanism of injury is an important determinant of clinical behavior in patients with IDS, and that ISD secondary to the APS mechanism is associated with substantially greater resuscitation requirements, morbidity, and mortality than ISD secondary to the VS mechanism.

Long-term persistence of disability following severe lower-limb trauma. Results of a seven-year follow-up.

BACKGROUND: A recent study demonstrated that patients treated with amputation and those treated with reconstruction had comparable functional outcomes at two years following limb-threatening trauma. The present study was designed to determine whether those outcomes improved after two years, and whether differences according to the type of treatment emerged. METHODS: Three hundred and ninety-seven patients who had undergone amputation or reconstruction of the lower extremity were interviewed by telephone at an average of eighty-four months after the injury. Functional outcomes were assessed with use of the physical and psychosocial subscores of the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP) and were compared with similar scores obtained at twenty-four months. RESULTS: On the average, physical and psychosocial functioning deteriorated between twenty-four and eighty-four months after the injury. At eighty-four months, one-half of the patients had a physical SIP subscore of > or = 10 points, which is indicative of substantial disability, and only 34.5% had a score typical of a general population of similar age and gender. There were few significant differences in the outcomes according to the type of treatment, with two exceptions. Compared with patients treated with reconstruction for a tibial shaft fracture, those with only a severe soft-tissue injury of the leg were 3.1 times more likely to have a physical SIP subscore of 5 points (p < 0.05) and those treated with a through-the-knee amputation were 11.5 times more likely to have a physical subscore of 5 points (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the psychosocial outcomes according to treatment group. Patient characteristics that were significantly associated with poorer outcomes included older age, female gender, nonwhite race, lower education level, living in a poor household, current or previous smoking, low self-efficacy, poor self-reported health status before the injury, and involvement with the legal system in an effort to obtain disability payments. Except for age, predictors of poor outcome were similar at twenty-four and eighty-four months after the injury. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm previous conclusions that reconstruction for the treatment of injuries below the distal part of the femur typically results in functional outcomes equivalent to those of amputation. Regardless of the treatment option, however, long-term functional outcomes are poor. Priority should be given to efforts to improve post-acute-care services that address secondary conditions that compromise optimal recovery.

Life-altering outcomes after lower extremity injury sustained in motor vehicle crashes.

BACKGROUND: Lower extremity injuries (LEIs) sustained in vehicular crashes result in physical problems and unexpected psychosocial consequences. Their significance is diminished by low Abbreviated Injury Scale scores. METHODS: Drivers who sustained LEIs were identified as part of the Crash Injury Research and Engineering Network (CIREN) and interviewed during hospitalization, at 6 months, and at 1 year. All were occupants of newer vehicles with seatbelts and airbags. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were followed for 1 year. Injuries included mild brain injury (43%), ankle/foot fractures (55%), and bilateral injuries (37%). One year post-injury, 46% reported limitations in walking and 22% with ankle/foot fractures were unable to return to work. Depression (39%), cognitive problems (32%), and post-traumatic stress disorder (18%) were significant in the mild brain injury group. CONCLUSIONS: Long-lasting physical and psychological burdens may impede recovery and alter the lifestyle of patients with LEI. These issues need to be addressed by trauma center personnel.

Functional outcomes following trauma-related lower-extremity amputation.

BACKGROUND: The principal aims of this study were to examine functional outcomes following trauma-related lower-extremity amputation and to compare outcomes according to the amputation levels. We hypothesized that above-the-knee amputations would result in less favorable outcomes than would through-the-knee or below-the-knee amputations. A secondary aim was to examine the factors, in addition to amputation level, that influence outcome, including the type of soft-tissue coverage, selected patient characteristics, and the technological sophistication of the prosthetic device. METHODS: A cohort of 161 patients who had undergone an above-the-ankle amputation at a trauma center within three months following the injury was followed prospectively at three, six, twelve, and twenty-four months after the injury. The Sickness Impact Profile, a self-reported measure of functional status, was used as the principal measure of outcome. Secondary outcomes included pain; degree of independence in transfers, walking, and climbing stairs; self-selected walking speed; and the physician's satisfaction with the clinical, functional, and cosmetic recovery of the limb. Longitudinal multivariate regression techniques were used to determine whether outcomes differed according to the level of amputation after we controlled for covariates. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the scores on the Sickness Impact Profile between the patients treated with above-the-knee and those treated with below-the-knee amputation. However, patients with a below-the-knee amputation performed better than did patients with an above-the-knee amputation on the timed test for walking speed (p = 0.04). Patients with a through-the-knee amputation had worse regression-adjusted Sickness Impact Profile scores (p = 0.05) and slower self-selected walking speeds (p = 0.004) than did patients with either a below-the-knee or an above-the-knee amputation. Differences according to the level of amputation were most pronounced for physical function. In general, physicians were less satisfied with the clinical, cosmetic, and functional recovery of the patients with a through-the-knee amputation. Except for problems encountered with insufficient gastrocnemius coverage of the stump in many patients with a through-the-knee amputation, neither the soft-tissue coverage nor the technological sophistication of the prosthesis correlated with outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Severe disability accompanies above-the-ankle lower-extremity amputation following trauma, regardless of the level of amputation. Clinicians should critically evaluate the need for a through-the-knee amputation in patients with a traumatic injury. The results of this study also underscore the need for controlled studies that examine the relationship between the type and fit of prosthetic devices and functional outcomes.