Sensing Cytosolic DNA Lowers Blood Pressure by Direct cGAMP-Dependent PKGI Activation.

BACKGROUND: The major cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) has emerged as a key mediator of inflammation that underlies cardiovascular disease. On interaction with double-stranded DNA, cGAS generates the second messenger 2',3'-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) that directly binds to and activates the stimulator of interferon genes, which in turn leads to enhanced expression of genes encoding interferons and proinflammatory cytokines. Here, we show that cGAMP generated by cGAS also directly activates PKGI (cGMP-dependent protein kinase 1), a mechanism that underlies crosstalk between inflammation and blood pressure regulation. METHODS: The ability of cGAS and cGAMP to activate PKGI was assessed using molecular, cellular, and biochemical analyses, and in myography experiments, as well. The release of cGAMP from the endothelium was measured using an ELISA, and its uptake into the vascular smooth muscle was assessed using molecular and biochemical approaches, including the identification and targeting of specific cGAMP transporters. The blood pressure of wild-type and cGAS-/- mice was assessed using implanted telemetry probes. cGAS was activated by in vivo transfection with G3-YSD or mice were made septic by administration of lipopolysaccharide. RESULTS: The detection of cytosolic DNA by cGAS within the vascular endothelium leads to formation of cGAMP that was found to be actively extruded by MRP1 (multidrug resistance protein 1). Once exported, this cGAMP is then imported into neighboring vascular smooth muscle cells through the volume-regulated anion channel, where it can directly activate PKGI. The activation of PKGI by cGAMP mediates vasorelaxation that is dependent on the activity of MRP1 and volume-regulated anion channel, but independent of the canonical nitric oxide pathway. This mechanism of PKGI activation mediates lowering of blood pressure and contributes to hypotension and tissue hypoperfusion during sepsis. CONCLUSIONS: The activation of PKGI by cGAMP enables the coupling of blood pressure to cytosolic DNA sensing by cGAS, which plays a key role during sepsis by mediating hypotension and tissue hypoperfusion.

IDH3γ functions as a redox switch regulating mitochondrial energy metabolism and contractility in the heart.

Redox signaling and cardiac function are tightly linked. However, it is largely unknown which protein targets are affected by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in cardiomyocytes that underly impaired inotropic effects during oxidative stress. Here, we combine a chemogenetic mouse model (HyPer-DAO mice) and a redox-proteomics approach to identify redox sensitive proteins. Using the HyPer-DAO mice, we demonstrate that increased endogenous production of H2O2 in cardiomyocytes leads to a reversible impairment of cardiac contractility in vivo. Notably, we identify the γ-subunit of the TCA cycle enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)3 as a redox switch, linking its modification to altered mitochondrial metabolism. Using microsecond molecular dynamics simulations and experiments using cysteine-gene-edited cells reveal that IDH3γ Cys148 and 284 are critically involved in the H2O2-dependent regulation of IDH3 activity. Our findings provide an unexpected mechanism by which mitochondrial metabolism can be modulated through redox signaling processes.

Blood Pressure-Lowering by the Antioxidant Resveratrol Is Counterintuitively Mediated by Oxidation of cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinase.

BACKGROUND: The health-promoting and disease-limiting abilities of resveratrol, a natural polyphenol, has led to considerable interest in understanding the mechanisms of its therapeutic actions. The polyphenolic rings of resveratrol enable it to react with and detoxify otherwise injurious oxidants. Whilst the protective actions of resveratrol are commonly ascribed to its antioxidant activity, here we show that this is a misconception. METHODS: The ability of resveratrol to oxidize cGMP-dependent PKG1α (protein kinase 1α) was assessed in isolated rat aortic smooth muscle cells, and the mechanism of action of this polyphenol was characterized using in vitro experiments, mass spectrometry and electron paramagnetic resonance. The blood pressure of wild-type and C42S knock-in mice was assessed using implanted telemetry probes. Mice were made hypertensive by administration of angiotensin II via osmotic mini-pumps and blood pressure monitored during 15 days of feeding with chow diet containing vehicle or resveratrol. RESULTS: Oxidation of the phenolic rings of resveratrol paradoxically leads to oxidative modification of proteins, explained by formation of a reactive quinone that oxidizes the thiolate side chain of cysteine residues; events that were enhanced in cells under oxidative stress. Consistent with these observations and its ability to induce vasodilation, resveratrol induced oxidative activation of PKG1α and lowered blood pressure in hypertensive wild-type mice, but not C42S PKG1α knock-in mice that are resistant to disulfide activation. CONCLUSIONS: Resveratrol mediates lowering of blood pressure by paradoxically inducing protein oxidation, especially during times of oxidative stress, a mechanism that may be a common feature of antioxidant molecules.

Evidence against Stable Protein S-Nitrosylation as a Widespread Mechanism of Post-translational Regulation.

S-nitrosation, commonly referred to as S-nitrosylation, is widely regarded as a ubiquitous, stable post-translational modification that directly regulates many proteins. Such a widespread role would appear to be incompatible with the inherent lability of the S-nitroso bond, especially its propensity to rapidly react with thiols to generate disulfide bonds. As anticipated, we observed robust and widespread protein S-nitrosation after exposing cells to nitrosocysteine or lipopolysaccharide. Proteins detected using the ascorbate-dependent biotin switch method are typically interpreted to be directly regulated by S-nitrosation. However, these S-nitrosated proteins are shown to predominantly comprise transient intermediates leading to disulfide bond formation. These disulfides are likely to be the dominant end effectors resulting from elevations in nitrosating cellular nitric oxide species. We propose that S-nitrosation primarily serves as a transient intermediate leading to disulfide formation. Overall, we conclude that the current widely held perception that stable S-nitrosation directly regulates the function of many proteins is significantly incorrect.

ß-Adrenergic regulation of cardiac type 2A protein phosphatase through phosphorylation of regulatory subunit B56δ at S573.

BACKGROUND: Type 2A protein phosphatase (PP2A) enzymes are serine/threonine phosphatases which comprise a scaffold A subunit, a regulatory B subunit and a catalytic C subunit, and have been implicated in the dephosphorylation of multiple cardiac phosphoproteins. B subunits determine subcellular targeting, substrate specificity and catalytic activity, and can themselves be regulated by post-translational modifications. We explored potential ß-adrenergic regulation of PP2A in cardiomyocytes through phosphorylation of the regulatory B subunit isoform B56δ. METHODS AND RESULTS: Phosphate affinity SDS-PAGE and immunoblot analysis revealed increased phosphorylation of B56δ in adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVM) exposed to the ß-adrenergic receptor (ßAR) agonist isoprenaline (ISO). Phosphorylation of B56δ occurred at S573, primarily through stimulation of the ß1AR subtype, and was dependent on PKA activity. The functional role of the phosphorylation was explored in ARVM transduced with adenoviruses expressing wild type (WT) or non-phosphorylatable (S573A) B56δ, fused to GFP at the N-terminus. C subunit expression was increased in ARVM expressing GFP-B56δ-WT or GFP-B56δ-S573A, both of which co-immunoprecipitated with endogenous C and A subunits. PP2A activity in cell lysates was increased in response to ISO in ARVM expressing GFP-B56δ-WT but not GFP-B56δ-S573A. Immunoblot analysis of the phosphoproteome in ARVM expressing GFP-B56δ-WT or GFP-B56δ-S573A with antibodies detecting (i) phospho-serine/threonine residues in distinct kinase substrate motifs or (ii) specific phosphorylated residues of functional importance in selected proteins revealed a comparable phosphorylation profile in the absence or presence of ISO stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: In cardiomyocytes, ßAR stimulation induces PKA-mediated phosphorylation of the PP2A regulatory subunit isoform B56δ at S573, which increases associated PP2A catalytic activity. This is likely to regulate the phosphorylation status of specific B56δ-PP2A substrates, which remain to be identified.

Redox-dependent dimerization of p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase with mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3.

The kinase p38α MAPK (p38α) plays a pivotal role in many biological processes. p38α is activated by canonical upstream kinases that phosphorylate the activation region. The purpose of our study was to determine whether such activation may depend on redox-sensing cysteines within p38α. p38α was activated and formed a disulfide-bound heterodimer with MAP2K3 (MKK3) in rat cardiomyocytes and isolated hearts exposed to H2O2 This disulfide heterodimer was sensitive to reduction by mercaptoethanol and was enhanced by the thioredoxin-reductase inhibitor auranofin. We predicted that Cys-119 or Cys-162 of p38α, close to the known MKK3 docking domain, were relevant for these redox characteristics. The C119S mutation decreased whereas the C162S mutation increased the dimer formation, suggesting that these two Cys residues act as vicinal thiols, consistent with C119S/C162S being incapable of sensing H2O2 Similarly, disulfide heterodimer formation was abolished in H9C2 cells expressing both MKK3 and p38α C119S/C162S and subjected to simulated ischemia and reperfusion. However, the p38α C119S/C162S mutants did not exhibit appreciable alteration in activating dual phosphorylation. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory agent 10-nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA), a component of the Mediterranean diet, reduced p38α activation and covalently modified Cys-119/Cys-162, probably obstructing MKK3 access. Moreover, NO2-OA reduced the dephosphorylation of p38α by hematopoietic tyrosine phosphatase (HePTP). Furthermore, steric obstruction of Cys-119/Cys-162 by NO2-OA pretreatment in Langendorff-perfused murine hearts prevented the p38-MKK3 disulfide dimer formation and attenuated H2O2-induced contractile dysfunction. Our findings suggest that cysteine residues within p38α act as redox sensors that can dynamically regulate the association between p38 and MKK3.

Proof of Principle for a Novel Class of Antihypertensives That Target the Oxidative Activation of PKG Iα (Protein Kinase G Iα).

Arterial hypertension continues to be a major health burden. Development of new antihypertensive drugs that engage vasodilatory mechanisms not harnessed by available therapies offer therapeutic potential. Oxidants induce an interprotein disulfide in PKG Iα (protein kinase G Iα) at C42, which is associated with its targeting and activation, resulting in vasodilation and blood pressure lowering. Consequently, we developed an assay and screened for electrophilic drugs that activate PKG Iα by selectively targeting C42, as such compounds have potential as novel antihypertensives with a mechanism of action that differs from current therapies. In this way, a drug that we termed G1 was identified, which targets C42 of PKG Iα to induce vasodilation of isolated resistance blood vessels and blood pressure lowering in a mouse model of angiotensin II-induced hypertension. In contrast, these antihypertensive effects were deficient in angiotensin II-induced hypertensive C42S PKG Iα knockin mice. These transgenic mice were engineered to have the reactive cysteinyl thiol replaced with a hydroxyl so that it cannot react with endogenous vasodilatory oxidants or electrophiles such as drug G1. These studies, therefore, provide validation of PKG Iα C42 as the target of G1, as well as proof-of-principle for a new class of antihypertensive drugs that have potential for further development for clinical use in humans.

Persistent Activation of cGMP-Dependent Protein Kinase by a Nitrated Cyclic Nucleotide via Site Specific Protein S-Guanylation.

8-Nitroguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-nitro-cGMP) is a nitrated derivative of guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP) formed endogenously under conditions associated with production of both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide. It acts as an electrophilic second messenger in the regulation of cellular signaling by inducing a post-translational modification of redox-sensitive protein thiols via covalent adduction of cGMP moieties to protein thiols (protein S-guanylation). Here, we demonstrate that 8-nitro-cGMP potentially S-guanylates thiol groups of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), the enzyme that serves as one of the major receptor proteins for intracellular cGMP and controls a variety of cellular responses. S-Guanylation of PKG was found to occur in a site specific manner; Cys42 and Cys195 were the susceptible residues among 11 Cys residues. Importantly, S-guanylation at Cys195, which is located in the high-affinity cGMP binding domain of PKG, causes persistent enzyme activation as determined by in vitro kinase assay as well as by an organ bath assay. In vivo, S-guanylation of PKG was demonstrated to occur in mice without any specific treatment and was significantly enhanced by lipopolysaccharide administration. These findings warrant further investigation in terms of the physiological and pathophysiological roles of S-guanylation-dependent persistent PKG activation.

Transcriptional Regulation of Cystathionine-γ-Lyase in Endothelial Cells by NADPH Oxidase 4-Dependent Signaling.

The gasotransmitter, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is recognized as an important mediator of endothelial cell homeostasis and function that impacts upon vascular tone and blood pressure. Cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) is the predominant endothelial generator of H2S, and recent evidence suggests that its transcriptional expression is regulated by the reactive oxygen species, H2O2. However, the cellular source of H2O2 and the redox-dependent molecular signaling pathway that modulates this is not known. We aimed to investigate the role of Nox4, an endothelial generator of H2O2, in the regulation of CSE in endothelial cells. Both gain- and loss-of-function experiments in human endothelial cells in vitro demonstrated Nox4 to be a positive regulator of CSE transcription and protein expression. We demonstrate that this is dependent upon a heme-regulated inhibitor kinase/eIF2α/activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) signaling module. ATF4 was further demonstrated to bind directly to cis-regulatory sequences within the first intron of CSE to activate transcription. Furthermore, CSE expression was also increased in cardiac microvascular endothelial cells, isolated from endothelial-specific Nox4 transgenic mice, compared with wild-type littermate controls. Using wire myography we demonstrate that endothelial-specific Nox4 transgenic mice exhibit a hypo-contractile phenotype in response to phenylephrine that was abolished when vessels were incubated with a CSE inhibitor, propargylglycine. We, therefore, conclude that Nox4 is a positive transcriptional regulator of CSE in endothelial cells and propose that it may in turn contribute to the regulation of vascular tone via the modulation of H2S production.

Ca(2+) signaling in the myocardium by (redox) regulation of PKA/CaMKII.

Homeostatic cardiac function is maintained by a complex network of interdependent signaling pathways which become compromised during disease progression. Excitation-contraction-coupling, the translation of an electrical signal to a contractile response is critically dependent on a tightly controlled sequence of events culminating in a rise in intracellular Ca(2+) and subsequent contraction of the myocardium. Dysregulation of this Ca(2+) handling system as well as increases in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are two major contributing factors to myocardial disease progression. ROS, generated by cellular oxidases and by-products of cellular metabolism, are highly reactive oxygen derivatives that function as key secondary messengers within the heart and contribute to normal homeostatic function. However, excessive production of ROS, as in disease, can directly interact with kinases critical for Ca(2+) regulation. This post-translational oxidative modification therefore links changes in the redox status of the myocardium to phospho-regulated pathways essential for its function. This review aims to describe the oxidative regulation of the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), and the subsequent impact this has on Ca(2+) handling within the myocardium. Elucidating the impact of alterations in intracellular ROS production on Ca(2+) dynamics through oxidative modification of key ROS sensing kinases, may provide novel therapeutic targets for preventing myocardial disease progression.

Deficient angiogenesis in redox-dead Cys17Ser PKARIα knock-in mice.

Angiogenesis is essential for tissue development, wound healing and tissue perfusion, with its dysregulation linked to tumorigenesis, rheumatoid arthritis and heart disease. Here we show that pro-angiogenic stimuli couple to NADPH oxidase-dependent generation of oxidants that catalyse an activating intermolecular-disulphide between regulatory-RIα subunits of protein kinase A (PKA), which stimulates PKA-dependent ERK signalling. This is crucial to blood vessel growth as 'redox-dead' Cys17Ser RIα knock-in mice fully resistant to PKA disulphide-activation have deficient angiogenesis in models of hind limb ischaemia and tumour-implant growth. Disulphide-activation of PKA represents a new therapeutic target in diseases with aberrant angiogenesis.

Protein kinase G Iα oxidation paradoxically underlies blood pressure lowering by the reductant hydrogen sulfide.

Dysregulated blood pressure control leading to hypertension is prevalent and is a risk factor for several common diseases. Fully understanding blood pressure regulation offers the possibility of developing rationale therapies to alleviate hypertension and associated disease risks. Although hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a well-established endogenous vasodilator, the molecular basis of its blood-pressure lowering action is incompletely understood. H2S-dependent vasodilation and blood pressure lowering in vivo was mediated by it catalyzing formation of an activating interprotein disulfide within protein kinase G (PKG) Iα. However, this oxidative activation of PKG Iα is counterintuitive because H2S is a thiol-reducing molecule that breaks disulfides, and so it is not generally anticipated to induce their formation. This apparent paradox was explained by H2S in the presence of molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide rapidly converting to polysulfides, which have oxidant properties that in turn activate PKG by inducing the disulfide. These observations are relevant in vivo because transgenic knockin mice in which the cysteine 42 redox sensor within PKG has been systemically replaced with a redox-dead serine residue are resistant to H2S-induced blood pressure lowering. Thus, a primary mechanism by which the reductant molecule H2S lowers blood pressure is mediated somewhat paradoxically by the oxidative activation of PKG.

Detecting disulfide-bound complexes and the oxidative regulation of cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinases by H2O2.

Hydrogen peroxide regulates intracellular signaling by oxidatively converting susceptible cysteine thiols to a modified state, which includes the formation of intermolecular disulfides. This type of oxidative modification can occur within the cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases often referred to as PKA and PKG, which have important roles in regulating cardiac contractility and systemic blood pressure. Both kinases are stimulated through conical pathways that elevate their respective cyclic nucleotides leading to direct kinase stimulation. However, PKA and PKG can also be functionally modulated independently of cyclic nucleotide stimulation through direct cysteine thiol oxidation leading to intermolecular disulfide formation. In the case of PKG, the formation of an intermolecular disulfide between two parallel dimeric subunits leads to enhanced kinase affinity for substrate. For PKA, the formation of two intermolecular disulfides between antiparallel dimeric regulatory RI subunits increases the affinity of this kinase for its binding partners, the A-kinase anchoring proteins, leading to increased PKA localization to its substrates. In this chapter, we describe the methods for detecting intermolecular disulfide-bound proteins and monitoring PKA and PKG oxidation within biological samples.

Protein kinase G oxidation is a major cause of injury during sepsis.

Sepsis is a common life-threatening clinical syndrome involving complications as a result of severe infection. A cardinal feature of sepsis is inflammation that results in oxidative stress. Sepsis in wild-type mice induced oxidative activation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase 1 alpha (PKG Iα), which increased blood vessel dilation and permeability, and also lowered cardiac output. These responses are typical features of sepsis and their combined effect is a lowering of blood pressure. This hypotension, a hallmark of sepsis, resulted in underperfusion of end organs, resulting in their damage. A central role for PKG Iα oxidative activation in injury is supported by oxidation-resistant Cys42Ser PKG Iα knock-in mice being markedly protected from these clinical indices of injury during sepsis. We conclude that oxidative activation of PKG Iα is a key mediator of hypotension and consequential organ injury during sepsis.

Endomembrane H-Ras controls vascular endothelial growth factor-induced nitric-oxide synthase-mediated endothelial cell migration.

We demonstrate for the first time that endomembrane-delimited H-Ras mediates VEGF-induced activation of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) and migratory response of human endothelial cells. Using thiol labeling strategies and immunofluorescent cell staining, we found that only 31% of total H-Ras is S-palmitoylated, tethering the small GTPase to the plasma membrane but leaving the function of the large majority of endomembrane-localized H-Ras unexplained. Knockdown of H-Ras blocked VEGF-induced PI3K-dependent Akt (Ser-473) and eNOS (Ser-1177) phosphorylation and nitric oxide-dependent cell migration, demonstrating the essential role of H-Ras. Activation of endogenous H-Ras led to recruitment and phosphorylation of eNOS at endomembranes. The loss of migratory response in cells lacking endogenous H-Ras was fully restored by modest overexpression of an endomembrane-delimited H-Ras palmitoylation mutant. These studies define a newly recognized role for endomembrane-localized H-Ras in mediating nitric oxide-dependent proangiogenic signaling.

Hydrogen peroxide sensing and signaling by protein kinases in the cardiovascular system.

SIGNIFICANCE: Oxidants were once principally considered perpetrators of injury and disease. However, this has become an antiquated view, with cumulative evidence showing that the oxidant hydrogen peroxide serves as a signaling molecule. Hydrogen peroxide carries vital information about the redox state of the cell and is crucial for homeostatic regulation during health and adaptation to stress. RECENT ADVANCES: In this review, we examine the contemporary concepts for how hydrogen peroxide is sensed and transduced into a biological response by introducing post-translational oxidative modifications on select proteins. Oxidant sensing and signaling by kinases are of particular importance as they integrate oxidant signals into phospho-regulated pathways. We focus on CAMKII, PKA, and PKG, kinases whose redox regulation has notable impact on cardiovascular function. CRITICAL ISSUES: In addition, we examine the mechanism for regulating intracellular hydrogen peroxide, considering the net concentrations that may accumulate. The effects of endogenously generated oxidants are often modeled by applying exogenous hydrogen peroxide to cells or tissues. Here we consider whether model systems exposed to exogenous hydrogen peroxide have relevance to systems where the oxidant is generated endogenously, and if so, what concentration can be justified in terms of relevance to health and disease. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: Improving our understanding of hydrogen peroxide signaling and the sensor proteins that it can modify will help us develop new strategies to regulate intracellular signaling to prevent disease.

Redox signaling in cardiac physiology and pathology.

Redox signaling refers to the specific and usually reversible oxidation/reduction modification of molecules involved in cellular signaling pathways. In the heart, redox signaling regulates several physiological processes (eg, excitation-contraction coupling) and is involved in a wide variety of pathophysiological and homoeostatic or stress response pathways. Reactive oxygen species involved in cardiac redox signaling may derive from many sources, but NADPH oxidases, as dedicated sources of signaling reactive oxygen species, seem to be especially important. An increasing number of specific posttranslational oxidative modifications involved in cardiac redox signaling are being defined, along with the reactive oxygen species sources that are involved. Here, we review current knowledge on the molecular targets of signaling reactive oxygen species in cardiac cells and their involvement in cardiac physiopathology. Advances in this field may allow the development of targeted therapeutic strategies for conditions such as heart failure as opposed to the general antioxidant approaches that have failed to date.

Nitroglycerin fails to lower blood pressure in redox-dead Cys42Ser PKG1α knock-in mouse.

BACKGROUND: Although nitroglycerin has remained in clinical use since 1879, the mechanism by which it relaxes blood vessels to lower blood pressure remains incompletely understood. Nitroglycerin undergoes metabolism that generates several reaction products, including oxidants, and this bioactivation process is essential for vasodilation. Protein kinase G (PKG) mediates classic nitric oxide-dependent vasorelaxation, but the 1α isoform is also independently activated by oxidation that involves interprotein disulfide formation within this homodimeric protein complex. We hypothesized that nitroglycerin-induced vasodilation is mediated by disulfide activation of PKG1α. METHODS AND RESULTS: Treating smooth muscle cells or isolated blood vessels with nitroglycerin caused PKG1α disulfide dimerization. PKG1α disulfide formation was increased in wild-type mouse aortas by in vivo nitroglycerin treatment, but this oxidation was lost as tolerance developed. To establish whether kinase oxidation underlies nitroglycerin-induced vasodilation in vivo, we used a Cys42Ser PKG1α knock-in mouse that cannot transduce oxidant signals because it does not contain the vital redox-sensing thiol. This redox-dead knock-in mouse was substantively deficient in hypotensive response to nitroglycerin compared with wild-type littermates as measured in vivo by radiotelemetry. Resistance blood vessels from knock-ins were markedly less sensitive to nitroglycerin-induced vasodilation (EC(50)=39.2 ± 10.7 µmol/L) than wild-types (EC(50)=12.1 ± 2.9 µmol/L). Furthermore, after ≈24 hours of treatment, wild-type controls stopped vasodilating to nitroglycerin, and the vascular sensitivity to nitroglycerin was decreased, whereas this tolerance phenomenon, which routinely hampers the management of hypertensive patients, was absent in knock-ins. CONCLUSIONS: PKG1α disulfide formation is a significant mediator of nitroglycerin-induced vasodilation, and tolerance to nitroglycerin is associated with loss of kinase oxidation.