Non-phthalate plasticizers in German daycare centers and human biomonitoring of DINCH metabolites in children attending the centers (LUPE 3).

Plasticizers have been widely used for decades as additives in diverse applications, including consumer and building products, toys, cables, and floorings. Due to toxicological concerns and restrictions of different dialkyl ortho-phthalates, other plasticizers have been increasingly used in recent years. Therefore, di-isononyl cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH), di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT), di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), acetyl tri-n-butyl citrate (ATBC), and trioctyl trimellitate (TOTM) plasticizer levels in indoor air and dust samples from 63 daycare centers in Germany were measured. Moreover, the urine samples of 208 children who attend 27 of these facilities were analyzed for the presence of four DINCH metabolites. DINCH, DEHT, and DEHA were present in indoor air with median values of 108 ng/m(3), 20 ng/m(3), and 34 ng/m(3), respectively. Median values of 302 mg/kg for DINCH, 49 mg/kg for DEHA, 40 mg/kg for DEHT, and 24 mg/kg ATBC were found in dust. In the urine samples, the three secondary metabolites of DINCH were observed with median values (95th percentiles) of 1.7 µg/l (10.0 µg/l) for OH-MINCH, 1.5 µg/l (8.0 µg/l) for oxo-MINCH, and 1.1 µg/l (6.1 µg/l) for cx-MINCH. Overall, these metabolite levels are orders of magnitude lower than the current HBM I values set by the German Human Biomonitoring Commission. Using general exposure assumptions, the intake resulting from dust ingestion and inhalation is low for children. The total daily DINCH intake calculated from biomonitoring data was 0.5 µg/kg b.w. using median values and 9.8 µg/kg b.w. as the maximum value. At present, non-phthalate plasticizers, especially DINCH, can be found in considerable amounts in dust samples from daycare centers and as DINCH metabolites in the urine of children. In relation to previous studies, the concentrations of DINCH in dust and urine have an increasing time trend. Compared with tolerable daily intake values, the total daily intake of DINCH reached only 1% of its maximum value to date; however, due to its increased use, higher exposure of DINCH is expected in the future.

Organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in the air and dust in German daycare centers and human biomonitoring in visiting children (LUPE 3).

Organophosphate (OP) flame retardants and plasticizers are chemicals that have been used in large quantities in diverse consumer and building-related products for decades. In the present study, OPs were measured in paired indoor air and dust samples from 63 daycare centers in Germany. Moreover, the urine of 312 children between 22 and 80 months old who attend these facilities was analyzed for the presence of eight OP metabolites. Tri-(2-butoxyethyl)-phosphate (TBEP), tris-(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP), and tri-n-butyl-phosphate (TnBP) were present in low concentrations in indoor air, with median values of 49 ng/m(3), 2.7 ng/m(3), and 2.2 ng/m(3), respectively. In dust, median values of 225 mg/kg for TBEP, 2.7 mg/kg for TCPP, 1.1mg/kg for diphenyl(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, and 0.5mg/kg for tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPhP) were found. In the urine samples, the metabolites di-phenyl-phosphate, di-n-butyl-phosphate, and di-(2-butoxyethyl)-phosphate had median values (95th percentiles) of 0.8 µg/l (4.0 µg/l), 0.2 µg/l (0.9 µg/l), and 2.0 µg/l (10.7 µg/l), respectively. A significant correlation was found between the dust and air samples in the levels of TnBP, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and TBEP. For TCEP and TBEP, significant correlations were also observed between the levels in dust and the respective metabolite levels in urine. For TCEP, there was also a significant correlation between the concentration in indoor air and metabolite levels in urine. Based on the 95th percentile in dust and air in our study and data from residences in a previously published study, the daily intake of the most abundant OP (TBEP) is high (i.e., 3.2 µg/kg b.w.). This level is approximately 6.4% of the reference dose (RfD) established by the NSF, U.S.A. Overall, our study shows that daycare centers are indoor environments that contribute to OP exposure.