Whither the muse: What influences empirical research on verbal behavior?

To identify some of the published works that have helped to inspire empirical verbal behavior research, we searched for patterns in the sources cited in empirical studies published in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior between 1990 and 1999. Not unexpectedly, Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior was the most cited source, although a variety of more recent sources explicating verbal relations as conceptualized by Skinner also were frequently cited. About one third of the most frequently cited sources were fairly recent primary empirical papers. These outcomes suggest that scholars who are interested in a behavior-analytic approach to studying verbal behavior are beginning to generate a critical mass of work that renders Verbal Behavior no longer monolithic in its influence. Nevertheless, some aspects of the citation data could be interpreted as evidence of insularity, and we argue for the importance of a broad-based analysis of verbal behavior that can have substantial impact outside of behavior analysis.

Sources cited most frequently in the experimental analysis of human behavior.

We conducted an analysis of the sources cited most frequently in primary empirical reports in the experimental analysis of human behavior (EAHB) published in four journals between 1990 and 1999. Citation patterns suggest that modern EAHB is topically focused and relatively independent of both animal operant research and human research conducted outside of behavior analysis.

Some effects of response-correlated increases in reinforcer magnitude on human behavior.

After training under short or long fixed-interval schedules, humans responded under a modified fixed-interval schedule in which magnitude of reinforcement (X or 2X) was minimally correlated with response frequency. Response frequencies that equaled or exceeded a minimum response criterion were followed by the larger reinforcer at the end of the interval; otherwise, the smaller reinforcer was delivered. The modified schedule alternated with the baseline schedule across conditions. In a control condition, the reinforcer magnitudes produced by control subjects were yoked to those of experimental subjects. Experimental subjects, but not control subjects, showed increased responding. In addition to the baseline and modified fixed-interval schedules used in Experiment 1, subjects in Experiment 2 also responded under a second modified fixed-interval contingency in which increases in reinforcer magnitude were more highly correlated with response frequency. Experimental subjects, but not control subjects, showed increased responding under both procedures. Direct comparison of these two procedures showed that the high-correlation procedure produced greater increases in responding than did the low-correlation procedure.

Laboratory lore and research practices in the experimental analysis of human behavior.

Growing interest in experimental analyses of human behavior has augmented the importance of describing its "laboratory lore" and research practices. "Laboratory lore" refers to the informal and miscellaneous collection of facts, assumptions, and techniques regarding the conduct of experimental research. This series of papers describes the laboratory lore and research practices of experimental analysts of human behavior. Topics include selecting subjects, designing session logistics, developing instructions, selecting reinforcers, and using subjects' verbal reports. These descriptions are offered as a step toward developing improved procedures for conducting research with human subjects.

Competitive fixed-interval performance in humans.

Two persons responded in the same session in separate cubicles, but under a single schedule of reinforcement. Each time reinforcement was programmed, only the first response to occur, that is, the response of only one of the subjects, was reinforced. "Competitive" behavior that developed under these conditions was examined in three experiments. In Experiment 1 subjects responded under fixed-interval (FI) 30-s, 60-s, and 90-s schedules of reinforcement. Under the competition condition, relative to baseline conditions, the response rates were higher and the pattern was "break-and-run." In Experiment 2, subjects were exposed first to a conventional FI schedule and then to an FI competition schedule. Next, they were trained to respond under either a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate (DRL) or fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, and finally, the initial FI competition condition was reinstated. In this second exposure to the FI competition procedure, DRL subjects responded at lower rates than were emitted during the initial exposure to that condition and FR subjects responded at higher rates. For all subjects, however, responding gradually returned to the break-and-run pattern that had occurred during the first FI competition condition. Experiment 3 assessed potential variables contributing to the effects of the competitive FI contingencies during Experiments 1 and 2. Subjects were exposed to FI schedules where (a) probability of reinforcement at completion of each fixed interval was varied, or (b) a limited hold was in effect for reinforcement. Only under the limited hold was responding similar to that observed in previous experiments.

Twenty-five years of JEAB: A survey of selected demographic characteristics related to publication trends.

Some demographic characteristics related to authorship of research reports in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) were analyzed as to affiliation and location (U.S. or foreign) of authors. In addition, the incidence of publications by the members of the editorial board was tallied. The number of different affiliations of JEAB authors has decreased steadily over the past several years with substantially fewer papers deriving from independent laboratories and medical schools. While the number of papers by foreign authors has generally increased over the years there is a recent reduction in their number. These data paint a mixed picture of the "health" status of the experimental analysis of behavior as reflected in its major publication outlet.

The analysis of human operant behavior: A brief census of the literature: 1958-1981.

A census involving several major journals was conducted to survey the content and scope of the experimental analysis of human behavior. While the percentage of reports involving human subjects published each year in JEAB has lacked consistency, it was shown that JEAB has been the primary outlet for human work among the journals surveyed. Few areas of interest within the study of human behavior have received extensive scrutiny. The normal adult (typically undergraduate students) has been the preferred subject for human research. The results of a citation analysis of JEAB reports featuring human research are also presented.

Effects of instructional constraints on human fixed-interval performance.

Several groups of human subjects were exposed to a variety of experimental conditions involving a fixed-interval 27-second schedule of reinforcement in compound with instructions to constrain in the number of responses within the interreinforcement interval and/or the duration of the experimental session. One group was further exposed to a contingency involving the placement of responses within the IRI. A diversity of patterns of performance was observed, including those typically associated with animal subjects exposed to FI schedules. Generally, the imposition of instructions to minimize session duration reduced post-reinforcement pausing and increased overall reinforcement density from those levels obtained with only instructions to expend a given number of responses per reinforcer. The results are seen to underscore the sensitivity of human fixed-interval performance and the contribution of extra-experimental contingencies.