Evaluating the Structure of Subjective Well-Being: Evidence From Three Large-Scale, Long-Term, National Longitudinal Studies.

To inform the tripartite structure of subjective well-being (SWB), national longitudinal studies from the United States, Germany, and Australia were used to estimate random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPM) in which between- and within-individual variation in life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) was examined over periods of up to two decades. The RI-CLPMs incorporated a hierarchical conceptualization in which LS, PA, and NA are indicators of a latent SWB factor and a causal systems conceptualization in which PA and NA are inputs to LS. Results from all three samples indicated substantial loadings from LS, PA, and NA on latent SWB factors between and within individuals. Cross-lagged effects were observed among all three SWB components, rather than unidirectional from PA and NA to LS. The present findings provide valuable new insights concerning the tripartite structure of SWB between and within individuals over extended periods of time.

The happy personality revisited: Re-examining associations between Big Five personality traits and subjective well-being using meta-analytic structural equation modeling.

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND: Using meta-analytic structural equation modeling (MASEM), we examined the link between Big Five personality traits and subjective well-being (SWB), operationalized as three separate components and as a latent factor indicated by life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA). PA and NA were assessed based on frequency of a broad range of affective experiences, rather than intensity of high arousal affective experiences, thus excluding studies using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. METHOD: 35 samples were included, encompassing 22,135 participants from 14 countries, in which all eight variables were assessed. RESULTS: Correlations among personality traits were moderate, on average, and the latent SWB factor had strong loadings from all three components. Personality traits together explained substantial variance in LS, PA, and NA, and in the latent SWB factor, with unique predictive effects on the latent factor from each personality trait except openness. Associations between personality traits and SWB components were fully accounted for by a latent SWB factor, with one exception: A specific association was found between neuroticism and unique variance in NA. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings provide new insights concerning the notion of a 'happy personality' in showing that Big Five personality traits have unique associations with an underlying sense of SWB.

Individual differences in naturally occurring affect predict conceptual breadth: evidence for the importance of arousal by valence interactions.

Several studies have investigated the effect of induced mood state on conceptual breadth (breadth and flexibility of thought). Early studies concluded that inducing a positive mood state broadened cognition, while inducing a negative mood state narrowed cognition. However, recent reports have suggested that valence and arousal can each influence conceptual breadth. Individual differences in affective dispositions may bias perceptions, thoughts, and behaviors and, in turn, may be biased by them. Here, we examine whether individual differences in valence and arousal dimensions of self-reported, naturally occurring affect relate to conceptual breadth (using the Remote Associates Test, the Object Categorization Task, and the Alternative Uses Task), with no mood manipulations or cues. The three conceptual breadth tasks loaded onto a latent conceptual breadth factor that was predicted significantly by the interaction of valence and arousal. For participants low in arousal, greater positive affect was associated with greater conceptual breadth. For participants high in arousal, greater positive affect was associated with reduced conceptual breadth. In contrast to most existing theories of conceptual breadth that highlight the importance of valence or arousal alone, the present results suggest that the interaction between arousal and valence is key to predicting individual differences in conceptual breadth. We posit that positive mood states predict greater conceptual breadth in the presence of low versus high arousal due to a relaxation of cognitive control under low arousal.

The global belief that "life gets better and better": National differences in recollected past, present, and anticipated future life satisfaction around the world, across time, and in relation to societal functioning.

National-level differences in individuals' ratings of their recollected past, current, and anticipated future life satisfaction (LS) were examined using results from two pioneering projects comprising national-level results for 14 countries (Cantril, 1965) and 15 regions of the world (Gallup International Research Institutes & Charles F. Kettering Foundation, 1976; Study 1), as well as sequential results from the Gallup World Poll based on 137 countries representing a broad range of nations from around the world surveyed from 2005 to 2018 (Study 2). Results from both studies revealed a robust belief that "life gets better" over time (i.e., recollected past < current < anticipated future LS) in nations around the world. Such beliefs were examined in relation to objective and subjective indicators of societal-level functioning. Results replicated across studies in showing that nations with less positive societal functioning and prosperity were characterized by less recollected past improvements in LS, and yet greater anticipated future improvements in LS. Results from Study 2 also revealed that such expectations were positively biased compared to changes over time in national levels of LS; further, greater bias was related to less positive societal-level functioning. In conclusion, examining national-level differences in LS from a subjective temporal perspective provides valuable new insights concerning human development and prosperity across countries, over time, and around the world. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"These pretzels are making me thirsty" so I'll have water tomorrow: A partial replication and extension of adults' induced-state episodic foresight.

The ability to consider the future under the influence of an induced current state is known as induced-state episodic foresight. One study to date has examined adults' induced episodic foresight and found that adults' (like children's) preferences for the future are related to their current state such that they predicted wanting water (vs. pretzels) in the future when experiencing a current state of thirst [1]. We attempted to replicate these findings in adults. In Study 1, adults (N = 198) in a laboratory selected pretzels for tomorrow at the same rate (around 20%) in an experimental condition (thirst induced) and a control condition (thirst not induced). In a lecture, 32% of adults preferred pretzels for tomorrow without thirst induction (Study 2, N = 63). Partially replicating Kramer et al. [1], we found that a minority of adults preferred pretzels (vs. water) when experiencing a current state of thirst. However, in contrast to their findings, our results showed that when thirst was not induced, a minority of adults also preferred pretzels for tomorrow. Thus, adults' future preference was similar regardless of thirst induction. We also tested thirst as a mechanism for adults' preference for the future and found that across conditions adults' thirst predicted their choice of water (vs. pretzels) for the future. In sum, our results partially replicated Kramer et al. [1] by showing the current state, regardless of thirst induction, predicts adults' choices for the future.

Between-person variation in naturally occurring affect does not relate to working memory performance: a latent variable modelling study.

Some studies have shown that induced positive and negative affective states have differential effects on verbal and spatial working memory (WM) performance, such that positive affect improves verbal WM and impairs spatial WM, while negative affect improves spatial WM and impairs verbal WM. However, other evidence based on mood induction procedures or clinical levels of negative affect has supported a nonspecific influence of affect on WM performance where negative affect impairs, and positive affect improves, both verbal and spatial WM. The present study employed a latent variable approach to investigate whether differences in naturally occurring affect between individuals are related to verbal and spatial WM performance across six WM tasks in an unselected sample of undergraduate students (N = 112, M age = 20; 84% female). Results were consistent with previous evidence demonstrating a hierarchical model of WM. Naturally occurring positive and negative affect were not significantly related to WM performance on each task, and this lack of significant association held for the overall WM latent variable, verbal and spatial WM latent variables, as well as complex span and 2-back latent variables. In contrast to research demonstrating a relationship between induced affect or clinical levels of negative affect and WM, the non-significant relationship between naturally occurring affect and WM performance in the current nonclinical unselected sample suggests that typical levels of affect are not related to WM differences across individuals.

Bottom-up or top-down? Examining global and domain-specific evaluations of how one's life is unfolding over time.

OBJECTIVE: We employed bottom-up and top-down perspectives to evaluate the link between how individuals view their lives as unfolding over time overall and in multiple life domains. METHOD: Participants from an American adult lifespan sample (n = 1,003, mean age = 54.39 years, 49% female, 94% Caucasian) evaluated their recollected past, current, and anticipated future satisfaction in seven life domains (health, work, finances, contribution to others, relationships with one's children, close relationships, sex life) and for their lives overall (life satisfaction) at two time points separated by 9 years. RESULTS: Mean-level trends varied by life domain and age. In cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, domain-specific beliefs about changes in one's life explained substantial amounts of variance in perceived changes in overall life satisfaction, and multiple domains had unique predictive effects. Domain-specific beliefs also substantially mediated the predictive effect of age on perceived change in life satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide consistent support for the bottom-up perspective and limited support for the top-down model. Accordingly, individuals seem to derive beliefs concerning how their lives overall are unfolding over time based on perceived changes across multiple life domains.

A systematic review of the relationship between perceived life script event age and valence across the life span.

Drawing on life script theory, we examined the relationship between the perceived age and valence of life script events across the life span. A review of the life script literature was conducted based on 14 studies, comprising 28 samples from 12 countries, and encompassing 4,012 participants. A total of 135 life script events between birth and death were identified-roughly four times the number of such events reported in any single sample. As predicted, the relationship between mean perceived life script age and valence for positive life script events during the bump period (i.e., between the ages of 10 and 30 years) was positive in direction within 15 of 18 relevant samples; however, this association was not statistically significant based on the aggregated life script event information. In contrast, consistent with predictions, the age-valence relationship for all life script events across the entire life span was negative in direction in each of the relevant samples and based on the aggregated life script event information. It appears that the life script contains at least 2 developmental stories concerning beliefs about experiences of key events and transitions: Life events get increasingly positive during younger adulthood, but decreasingly positive across the entire life span. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Lay theories of health, self-rated health, and health behavior intentions.

We used an experimental design to examine young adults' ( N = 247; M age = 19.71; 86% female) intentions to engage in health-promoting behaviors in relation to beliefs concerning whether health is malleable or fixed, and how their health is unfolding over time. Individuals in the incremental (health is malleable) and control conditions viewed their health as improving over time; those in the entity (health is fixed) condition viewed their health as relatively stable. Individuals with more incremental theories of health and those who viewed their health as improving over time (particularly past to present) reported stronger health-promoting behavior intentions.

Further Evaluation of the Tripartite Structure of Subjective Well-Being: Evidence From Longitudinal and Experimental Studies.

Subjective well-being (SWB; Diener, 1984) comprises three primary components: life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA). Multiple competing conceptualizations of the tripartite structure of SWB have been employed, resulting in widespread ambiguity concerning the definition, operationalization, analysis, and synthesis of SWB-related findings (Busseri & Sadava, 2011). We report two studies evaluating two predominant structural models (as recently identified by Busseri, 2015): a hierarchical model comprising a higher-order latent SWB factor with LS, PA, and NA as indicators; and a causal systems model specifying unidirectional effects of PA and NA on LS. A longitudinal study (N = 452; Mage = 18.54; 76.5% female) and a lab-based experiment (N = 195; Mage = 20.42 years; 87.6% female; 81.5% Caucasian) were undertaken. Structural models were evaluated with respect to (a) associations among SWB components across time (three months, three years in Study 1; one week in Study 2) and (b) the impact of manipulating the individual SWB components (Study 2). A hierarchical structural model was supported in both studies; conflicting evidence was found for the causal systems model. A hierarchical model provides a robust conceptualization for the tripartite structure of SWB.

Measuring psychological engagement in youth activity involvement.

Although psychological engagement (e.g., enjoyment, concentration) may be critical in fostering positive outcomes of youth activity participation, too few studies have been conducted to establish its role in development. Furthermore, an established measurement tool is lacking. In the current study, we evaluated a brief engagement measure with two Canadian samples of youth (Sample 1, N = 290, mean age = 16.9 years, 62% female; Sample 2, N = 1827, mean age = 13.1 years, 54% female). We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis with structural equation modeling to examine the hypothesized structure of the model. We also assessed the measure's validity by testing relations between engagement and both perceived outcomes and positive features of activity settings. Psychological engagement was best captured by three latent cognitive, affective, and relational/spiritual factors and a second-order latent factor. Also, as anticipated, psychological engagement was associated with features of the activity setting and perceived impact.

Costly retaliation is promoted by threats to resources in women and threats to status in men.

What motivates people to act against their own self-interest? In men, what seems to be irrational decision-making in the short-term may be explained by other long-term benefits; thus retaliation may not be motivated by tangible costs, but instead intangible psychological variables (e.g., status threats). In contrast, there is evidence that women are more sensitive to tangible costs than are men. In Experiment 1, using the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (PSAP), we tested the prediction that in men, the frequency of provocation, and not the monetary loss (tangible cost), would be associated with retaliation, whereas women would be sensitive to the tangible costs. In keeping with the prediction, women (n = 80) who incurred greater tangible costs (irrespective of frequency) retaliated with more costly punishment, whereas men (n = 90) who were provoked more frequently (irrespective of tangible costs) retaliated with more costly punishment. In Experiment 2, we directly investigated whether women were more sensitive to threats to resources and men were more sensitive to threats to status, as suggested by the results of Experiment 1. Women's (n = 53) retaliation was greater when they reported it to be a means to protect their resources, and men's (n = 35) retaliation was greater when they reported it to be a means to protect their status. Thus, these results identify psychological variables that guide retaliation that is costly to the actor. Consistent with evolutionary perspectives, concerns about status appear to drive costly retaliatory behavior more so in men than in women.

Re-evaluating the relationships among filtering activity, unnecessary storage, and visual working memory capacity.

The amount of task-irrelevant information encoded in visual working memory (VWM), referred to as unnecessary storage, has been proposed as a potential mechanism underlying individual differences in VWM capacity. In addition, a number of studies have provided evidence for additional activity that initiates the filtering process originating in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia, and is therefore a crucial step in the link between unnecessary storage and VWM capacity. Here, we re-examine data from two prominent studies that identified unnecessary storage activity as a predictor of VWM capacity by directly testing the implied path model linking filtering-related activity, unnecessary storage, and VWM capacity. Across both studies, we found that unnecessary storage was not a significant predictor of individual differences in VWM capacity once activity associated with filtering was accounted for; instead, activity associated with filtering better explained variation in VWM capacity. These findings suggest that unnecessary storage is not a limiting factor in VWM performance, whereas neural activity associated with filtering may play a more central role in determining VWM performance that goes beyond preventing unnecessary storage.

Toward a Resolution of the Tripartite Structure of Subjective Well-Being.

Diener (1984) introduced the concept of "subjective well-being" (SWB) as comprising three primary components: life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA). Busseri and Sadava (2011) identified multiple competing conceptualizations of the tripartite structure of SWB and delineated problems with this ambiguity with respect to defining, operationalizing, analyzing, and synthesizing information concerning SWB. The present work provides an empirical evaluation of four competing structural approaches in which SWB is conceptualized variously as three separate components (Model 1), a hierarchical construct (Model 2), a causal system (Model 3), and a composite (Model 4). Data from a longitudinal study of middle-aged Americans (N = 3,707; 20-75 years old, 55% female, 94% Caucasian) were used to examine the relatedness versus independence of the three SWB components within and across time, as well as predictive effects on SWB. The various structural models differ in how adequately they accommodate the joint relatedness/independence of the SWB components and lead to different conclusions concerning predictive effects on SWB. Conceptual and empirical considerations are considered within and across models. Implications and next steps for further understanding the tripartite structure of SWB are discussed.

Testosterone dynamics and psychopathic personality traits independently predict antagonistic behavior towards the perceived loser of a competitive interaction.

Few studies have investigated the influence of changes in testosterone on subsequent competitive, antagonistic behavior in humans. Further, little is known about the extent to which such effects are moderated by personality traits. Here, we collected salivary measures of testosterone before and after a rigged competition. After the competition, participants were given the opportunity to act antagonistically against the competitor (allocate a low honorarium). We hypothesized that changes in testosterone throughout the competition would predict antagonistic behavior such that greater increases would be associated with the allocation of lower honorariums. Further, we investigated the extent to which personality traits related to psychopathy (fearless dominance, FD; self-centered impulsivity, SCI; and coldheartedness) moderated this relationship. In men (n=104), greater increases in testosterone and greater FD were associated with more antagonistic behavior, but testosterone concentrations did not interact with personality measures. In women (n=97), greater FD and SCI predicted greater antagonistic behavior, but there were no significant endocrine predictors or interactions with personality measures. In a secondary set of analyses, we found no support for the dual-hormone hypothesis that the relationship between baseline testosterone concentrations and behavior is moderated by cortisol concentrations. Thus, results are consistent with previous findings that in men, situation-specific testosterone reactivity rather than baseline endocrine function is a better predictor of future antagonistic behavior. The results are discussed with respect to the Challenge Hypothesis and the Biosocial Model of Status, and the possible mechanisms underlying the independent relations of testosterone and personality factors with antagonistic behavior.

Bright minds and dark attitudes: lower cognitive ability predicts greater prejudice through right-wing ideology and low intergroup contact.

Despite their important implications for interpersonal behaviors and relations, cognitive abilities have been largely ignored as explanations of prejudice. We proposed and tested mediation models in which lower cognitive ability predicts greater prejudice, an effect mediated through the endorsement of right-wing ideologies (social conservatism, right-wing authoritarianism) and low levels of contact with out-groups. In an analysis of two large-scale, nationally representative United Kingdom data sets (N = 15,874), we found that lower general intelligence (g) in childhood predicts greater racism in adulthood, and this effect was largely mediated via conservative ideology. A secondary analysis of a U.S. data set confirmed a predictive effect of poor abstract-reasoning skills on antihomosexual prejudice, a relation partially mediated by both authoritarianism and low levels of intergroup contact. All analyses controlled for education and socioeconomic status. Our results suggest that cognitive abilities play a critical, albeit underappreciated, role in prejudice. Consequently, we recommend a heightened focus on cognitive ability in research on prejudice and a better integration of cognitive ability into prejudice models.

Brief report: engagement in sport and identity status.

Drawing on identity development theory, the connection between engagement in sport and identity status was examined. First-year undergraduates (n = 116 sport-involved youth; 67% women; mean age = 18.58 yrs) completed measures of interpersonal and ideological identity status (achievement, moratorium, diffusion, foreclosure), along with behavioral (breadth, intensity) and psychological (e.g., enjoyment, competence) indicators of sport engagement. Using structural equation modeling, we examined the relation between latent sport engagement and identity status in interpersonal and ideological domains. As hypothesized, latent sport engagement predicted greater interpersonal (but not ideological) identity achievement. Consistent with identity development theory, an additional specific relation was observed between lower breadth of sport involvement and higher interpersonal identity achievement. Results demonstrate the value of examining behavioral and psychological indicators of sport engagement jointly, and support a growing body of research linking sport and positive youth development.

Stability and change in adolescent spirituality/religiosity: a person-centered approach.

Although there has been a substantial increase over the past decade in studies that have examined the psychosocial correlates of spirituality/religiosity in adolescence, very little is known about spirituality/religiosity as a domain of development in its own right. To address this limitation, the authors identified configurations of multiple dimensions of spirituality/religiosity across 2 time points with an empirical classification procedure (cluster analysis) and assessed development in these configurations at the sample and individual level. Participants included 756 predominately Canadian-born adolescents (53% female, 47% male) from southern Ontario, Canada, who completed a survey in Grade 11 (M age = 16.41 years) and Grade 12 (M age = 17.36 years). Measures included religious activity involvement, enjoyment of religious activities, the Spiritual Transcendence Index, wondering about spiritual issues, frequency of prayer, and frequency of meditation. Sample-level development (structural stability and change) was assessed by examining whether the structural configurations of the clusters were consistent over time. Individual-level development was assessed by examining intraindividual stability and change in cluster membership over time. Results revealed that a five cluster-solution was optimal at both grades. Clusters were identified as aspiritual/irreligious, disconnected wonderers, high institutional and personal, primarily personal, and meditators. With the exception of the high institutional and personal cluster, the cluster structures were stable over time. There also was significant intraindividual stability in all clusters over time; however, a significant proportion of individuals classified as high institutional and personal in Grade 11 moved into the primarily personal cluster in Grade 12.

A review of the tripartite structure of subjective well-being: implications for conceptualization, operationalization, analysis, and synthesis.

Subjective well-being (SWB) comprises a global evaluation of life satisfaction and positive and negative affective reactions to one's life. Despite the apparent simplicity of this tripartite model, the structure of SWB remains in question. In the present review, the authors identify five prominent structural conceptualizations in which SWB is cast variously as three separate components, a hierarchical construct, a causal system, a composite, and as configurations of components. Supporting evidence for each of these models is reviewed, strengths and weaknesses are evaluated, and commonalities and discrepancies among approaches are described. The authors demonstrate how current ambiguities concerning the tripartite structure of SWB have fundamental implications for conceptualization, measurement, analysis, and synthesis. Given these ambiguities, it is premature to propose a definitive structure of SWB. Rather, the authors outline a research agenda comprising both short-term and longer-term steps toward resolving these foundational, yet largely unaddressed, issues concerning SWB.

Emotion regulation strategies and goals as predictors of older mothers' and adult daughters' helping-related subjective well-being.

We examined emotion regulation (ER) in intergenerational helping relationships involving 77 older mother-adult daughter dyads. Participants' ER strategies (passive, proactive) and ER goals (self-oriented, other oriented) were considered as predictors of their own and their partners' satisfaction with, and their positive and negative affective reactions to, the helping relationship. For mothers and daughters, greater use of passive ER strategies predicted greater negative affect, lower satisfaction, and less positive affect for themselves, as well as partner reports of lower satisfaction and (for daughters only) greater negative affect. Mothers' and daughters' use of proactive strategies predicted lower negative affect for themselves, and daughters' use of proactive ER strategies predicted lower negative affect for their mothers. Mothers' and daughters' endorsement of other-oriented ER goals predicted greater satisfaction and positive affect for themselves. Results are considered in the context of the larger literature concerning intergenerational helping relationships.