Predicting Later Spelling from Kindergarten Spelling in U.S., Australian, and Swedish Children.

Purpose: Using data from 1,868 children from the US, Australia, and Sweden who took a 10-word spelling test in kindergarten and a standardized spelling test in Grades 1, 2, and (except for the Australian children) Grade 4, we examined two questions. First, does the quality of a child's errors on the kindergarten test help predict later spelling performance even after controlling for the number of correct responses on the kindergarten test? Second, does spelling develop at a faster pace in Swedish than in English? Method: We measured kindergarten error quality based on the number of letter additions, deletions, and substitutions needed to transform each error into the correct spelling. Using mixed-model analyses, we examined the relationship of this and other variables to later spelling performance. Results: Kindergarten error quality contributed significantly to the prediction of later spelling performance even after consideration of the number of correct spellings in kindergarten and other relevant variables. The Swedish children showed more rapid growth in spelling than the U.S. and Australian children, a difference that may reflect the greater transparency of spelling-to-sound links in Swedish. Conclusion: Information from a spelling test that is typically discarded-information about the nature of the errors-has value.

Addressing genetic essentialism: Sharpening context in behavior genetics.

Evidence of a causal role for genes in human behavior underpins genetic essentialism, the scientifically flawed and socially hazardous idea that heritable characteristics are immutable. Behavior geneticists can challenge this idea by designing research that brings the contextual dependence of heritability estimates into sharper focus, and by incorporating a relevant statement into research reports and public outreach.

Regional Nerve Block Complication Analysis Following Peripheral Nerve Block During Foot and Ankle Surgical Procedures.

Background Foot and ankle surgeries are frequently accompanied by a peripheral nerve block in order to reduce postoperative pain. Higher than expected complication rates with peripheral nerve blocks have led to increased concern among surgeons and patients. To our knowledge, no study conducted by the treating surgeon has identified risk factors that may predispose a patient to complications. Our goal was to attempt to identify those risk factors. Methods We reviewed patient charts of those who underwent an orthopedic foot and ankle procedure between 2013 and 2018, as performed by the senior author. This yielded 992 procedures performed across four surgical locations. Of these procedures, 137 procedures were removed because no block was used. The remaining cases were analyzed for nerve complications, defined as sensory or motor deficits along the distribution of a nerve. The patients were divided into those with and without complications and were evaluated for differences. Statistical analysis was performed using the SAS® software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA). Results The overall short-term complication rate was 10.1% and the long-term complication rate was 4.3%, with a total of 855 blocks given. Electromyographies (EMGs) were performed on 24.4% of the patients with a complication. Of the EMGs, 95.2% confirmed nerve complications in the distribution of the blocked nerve. The significant factors associated with complications were age, BMI, location, and smoking status. A regression analysis was performed to determine the odds ratio for individual factors. Those with significantly higher odds ratio were between 40 and 65 years of age, had normal or underweight BMI, underwent surgery at an outpatient surgery center, and were current smokers. Conclusions Our study suggests that there are significant epidemiological factors in predicting postoperative complications related to a peripheral nerve block. The study also shows a similar short-term complication rate but a higher long-term complication rate than other studies. This data are important because it allows for an informed decision to be made between a surgeon, anesthesiologist, and the patient regarding the safety and necessity of delivering a preoperative peripheral nerve block based on patient risk factors.

Exploring the Influence of Early Childhood Education and Care on the Etiology of Achievement.

The present study used a genetically-sensitive quantile regression approach to examine the relation between participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC) and subsequent school performance in literacy and numeracy at grades 3, 5, 7, and 9. The sample consisted of 1255 twin pairs (596 MZ; 659 DZ) with information on both ECEC and the National Assessment Program-Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) scores from the Twin Study of NAPLAN. Results indicated variation in heritability estimates across the distributions of achievement, suggesting that different patterns of etiological influences may exist among children of different ability levels. Additionally, the results provided no evidence that ECEC significantly influenced achievement, and in the genetically-sensitive analyses, no evidence that ECEC moderated the influences of heritability of achievement for typically advantaged children. These results suggest that ECEC may not provide the levels of environmental support for later achievement that advocates claim, although we acknowledge that ECEC quality, which was not measured in the current study, may make a difference in whether or not ECEC influences achievement.

The Academic Development Study of Australian Twins (ADSAT): Research Aims and Design.

The Academic Development Study of Australian Twins was established in 2012 with the purpose of investigating the relative influence of genes and environments in literacy and numeracy capabilities across two primary and two secondary school grades in Australia. It is the first longitudinal twin project of its kind in Australia and comprises a sample of 2762 twin pairs, 40 triplet sets and 1485 nontwin siblings. Measures include standardized literacy and numeracy test data collected at Grades 3, 5, 7 and 9 as part of the National Assessment Program: Literacy and Numeracy. A range of demographic and behavioral data was also collected, some at multiple longitudinal time points. This article outlines the background and rationale for the study and provides an overview for the research design, sample and measures collected. Findings emerging from the project and future directions are discussed.

Comment on Asbury and Wai (2019), "Viewing education policy through a genetic lens," Journal of School Choice.

Asbury and Wai (Journal of School Choice, 2019) perform a valuable service by summarizing much available behavior--genetic research on academic achievement. However they consider that no specific policies stem from the research body at this time. Here we do propose a policy based on some of our research using twins, namely that available funding for students struggling with learning to read be targeted to them individually rather than allocated to schools per se. We briefly canvass some practical issues, such as the variety of funding mechanisms, best-practice intervention techniques, and identification of struggling readers. We also outline a general research strategy for uncovering factors contributing to educational attainment that takes behavior-genetic research as its starting point and drills down from there, and advocate including genetically-sensitive methods in a growing list of quantitative research techniques in education.

Differential Influences of Genes and Environment Across the Distribution of Reading Ability.

We partitioned early childhood reading into genetic and environmental sources of variance and examined the full distribution of ability levels from low through normal to high as computed by quantile regression. The full sample comprised twin pairs measured at preschool (n = 977), kindergarten (n = 1028), grade 1 (n = 999), and grade 2 (n = 1000). Quantile regression analyses of the full distribution of literacy ability showed genetic influence in all grades from preschool to grade 2. At preschool, the low end of the distribution had higher genetic influence than the high end of the distribution and the shared environment influence was the opposite. These shared environment influences of preschool became insignificant with formal schooling. This suggests that higher scores in pre-literacy skills (preschool) are more influenced by shared environment factors, though these are short-lived. This study discusses the factors that may be influencing the results.

Cross-Country Differences in Parental Reporting of Symptoms of ADHD.

Previous studies within the United States suggest there are cultural and contextual influences on how Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms are perceived. If such influences operate within a single country, they are likely to also occur between countries. In the current study, we tested whether country differences in mean ADHD scores also reflect cultural and contextual differences, as opposed to actual etiological differences. The sample for the present study included 974 participants from four countries tested at two-time points, the end of preschool and the end of 2nd grade. Consistent with previous research, we found lower mean ADHD scores in Norway and Sweden in comparison to Australia and the United States, and we tested four explanations for these country differences: 1) Genuine etiological differences, 2) Slower introduction to formal academic skills in Norway and Sweden than in the United States and Australia that indicated a context difference, 3) Under-reporting tendency in Norway and Sweden, or 4) Over-reporting tendency in the United States and Australia. Either under-or over-reporting would be examples of cultural differences in the perception of ADHD symptoms. Of these explanations, results of ADHD measurement equivalence tests across countries rejected the first three explanations and supported the fourth explanation: an over-reporting tendency in the United States and Australia. These findings indicate that parental reporting of ADHD symptoms is more accurate in Norway and Sweden than in Australia and the United States, and thus have important clinical and educational implications for how parental reporting informs an ADHD diagnosis in these countries.

Little Evidence That Socioeconomic Status Modifies Heritability of Literacy and Numeracy in Australia.

Socioeconomic status (SES) has been found to moderate the influence of genes and the environment on cognitive ability, such that genetic influence is greater when SES is higher, and the shared environment is greater when SES is lower, but not in all Western countries. The effects of both family and school SES on the heritability of literacy and numeracy in Australian twins aged 8, 10, 12, and 14 years with 1,307, 1,235, 1,076, and 930 pairs at each age, respectively, were tested. Shared environmental influences on Grade 3 literacy were greater with low family SES, and no other moderating effects of SES were significant. These findings are contrasted with results from the United States and the United Kingdom.

Twin classroom dilemma: To study together or separately?

There is little research to date on the academic implications of teaching twins in the same or different classroom. Consequently, it is not clear whether twin classroom separation is associated with positive or negative educational outcomes. As a result, parents and teachers have insufficient evidence to make a well-informed decision when twins start school. This study addresses two research questions: Are there average positive or negative effects of classroom separation? Are twins taught in different classes more different from each other than twins taught in the same class? Twin pairs from two large representative samples from Quebec (Canada) and the United Kingdom were evaluated across a large age range (7 to 16 years) on academic achievement, several cognitive abilities and motivational measures. Our results show almost no sizable positive or negative average effect of classroom separation on twins' achievement, cognitive ability and motivation. Twin pairs at age 12 (Quebec, Canada) and at age 16 (United Kingdom) were slightly more similar on achievement if placed in the same classroom, with slightly greater similarity among monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins. However, the few effects found were weak, and it remains unclear whether they result from classroom separation or other factors. These results suggest that in terms of educational outcomes, policymakers should not impose rigid guidelines to separate twin pairs during their education. The choice of whether to educate twin pairs together or separately should be up to parents, twins and teachers, in response to twins' individual needs. (PsycINFO Database Record

Literacy acquisition influences children's rapid automatized naming.

Previous research has established that learning to read improves children's performance on reading-related phonological tasks, including phoneme awareness (PA) and nonword repetition. Few studies have investigated whether literacy acquisition also promotes children's rapid automatized naming (RAN). We tested the hypothesis that literacy acquisition should influence RAN in an international, longitudinal population sample of twins. Cross-lagged path models evaluated the relationships among literacy, PA, and RAN across four time points from pre-kindergarten through grade 4. Consistent with previous research, literacy showed bidirectional relationships with reading-related oral language skills. We found novel evidence for an effect of earlier literacy on later RAN, which was most evident in children at early phases of literacy development. In contrast, the influence of earlier RAN on later literacy was predominant among older children. These findings imply that the association between these two related skills is moderated by development. Implications for models of reading development and for dyslexia research are discussed.

Gene-Environment Interactions in ADHD: The Roles of SES and Chaos.

Although attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is highly heritable, emerging evidence suggests symptoms are associated with interactions between genes and the environment (GxE) during development. This study tested whether heritability of ADHD symptoms is moderated by two environmental factors: socioeconomic status (SES) and chaos (household disorganisation). A population sample of 520 twin pairs (N = 1040, 52.3% female) from 6 to 15 years completed measures of behavior and home environment. Structural equation modelling was then used to test whether environmental factors were associated with a change in the extent to which genes explain variability in ADHD symptoms. Neither chaos nor SES moderated heritability, with consistent contributions from both genes and environment indicated across socioeconomic strata and levels of chaos. This finding contrasts with those of previous research, underlining the need to replicate results in the emerging field of GxE research across different populations and statistical methods. Robust findings may assist in developing targeted interventions for genetically vulnerable individuals.

Associations between selected dietary behaviours and academic achievement: A study of Australian school aged children.

BACKGROUND: Research investigating the effects of dietary behaviours on children's academic achievement has predominately focused on breakfast consumption. The aim of this study was to conduct secondary analysis to examine associations between a range of dietary behaviours and children's academic achievement. METHODOLOGY: Data on five dietary variables (fruit intake; vegetable intake; consumption of takeaway; sugar sweetened beverages; and breakfast) and scores in the five domains of a standardised academic achievement test known as NAPLAN (reading, writing, grammar/punctuation, spelling and numeracy) were obtained for Australian children aged 8-15 years in school grades three (n = 1185), five (n = 1147), seven (n = 1053) and nine (n = 860). Mixed linear models adjusted for socioeconomic status and gender were used to examine associations between dietary behaviours and academic scores. RESULTS: Greater consumption of vegetables with the evening meal (7 nights/week) was associated with higher test scores in the domains of spelling and writing (p=<0.01), with the greatest effect observed for spelling with a mean score difference of 86 ± 26.5 NAPLAN points between the highest and lowest levels of consumption (95% CI: 34.0-138.1; p=<0.01). Increased consumption of sugar sweetened beverages was associated with significantly lower test scores in reading, writing, grammar/punctuation and numeracy (<0.01). PRINCIPLE CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study demonstrate dietary behaviours are associated with higher academic achievement. Future research should further explore relationships between a wide range of dietary behaviours and children's academic achievement.

Farming and ranching related injuries in Southern Idaho.

INTRODUCTION: Agriculture is an inherently dangerous industry. We sought injury data for use with the Idaho Time Sensitive Emergency (TSE) system to formulate goals and track improvements. METHODS: Registries in southern Idaho were queried for ICD-9-CM diagnoses related to agriculture in 2014. Injuries known or likely to have occurred on properties intended for farming, ranching, animal care, or milk production, and relating to those activities were included. RESULTS: Among 72 patients, injuries were related to horses (31%), machinery (17%), ATVs (17%), and hay bales/haystacks (13%). Average age was 45 (3-82), 82% male, and mean ISS of 13 (1-50). Transportation utilized air (31%) and ground (69%) methods, with an average of 35 min (9-132). There was 1 inhospital death and 4 on-scene fatalities. CONCLUSIONS: We established baseline transport and injury data for the Idaho TSE system. These results can help our TSE system track improvements intended to increase quality of care.

Characterizing the Multidrug Resistance of non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates from Cattle Farms and Abattoirs.

Non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STECs) are not as well characterized as O157 STEC cases, despite their similar prevalence in many countries. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the phenotypic and genotypic basis of multidrug resistance (MDR) in non-O157 STEC farm- and abattoir-sourced isolates and assess the potential dissemination of these MDR profiles in vitro. Susceptibility testing to 20 antimicrobials was performed on 146 non-O157 STECs isolated from farm and abattoir environments. Eighty-seven percent of non-O157 STEC isolates were multidrug resistant to antimicrobials used during veterinary and agricultural practice. Antimicrobial resistance was significantly higher in abattoir isolates compared with the farm isolates (p < 0.05). Corresponding resistance determinants and integrons were investigated by polymerase chain reaction, with the predominant resistance determinants detected being floR, ampC, tet(A), blaTEM, and sul1. This is the first report of tet(G) in a non-O157 STEC isolate. Class 1 integrons were detected in 17 isolates. Resistance to ampicillin, cephalothin, chloramphenicol, kanamycin, neomycin, sulfonamides, trimethoprim, and tetracycline was associated with transferable plasmids belonging to incompatibility groups IncP, IncB/O, and IncFIB. Most MDR non-O157 STECs (90%) isolated in this study belong to phylogenetic groups A and B1. These findings suggest that MDR non-O157 STECs are emerging as a result of nonpathogenic E. coli acquiring virulence and resistance genes. This may convey a certain competitive advantage in the colonization of cattle when antimicrobial selective pressures are present, thereby leading to an increase in contamination of food with MDR non-O157 STECs.

Measures of Kindergarten Spelling and Their Relations to Later Spelling Performance.

Learning the orthographic forms of words is important for both spelling and reading. To determine whether some methods of scoring children's early spellings predict later spelling performance better than do other methods, we analyzed data from 374 U.S. and Australian children who took a 10-word spelling test at the end of kindergarten (mean age 6 years, 2 months) and a standardized spelling test approximately two years later. Surprisingly, scoring methods that took account of phonological plausibility did not outperform methods that were based only on orthographic correctness. The scoring method that is most widely used in research with young children, which allots a certain number of points to each word and which considers both orthographic and phonological plausibility, did not rise to the top as a predictor. Prediction of Grade 2 spelling performance was improved to a small extent by considering children's tendency to reverse letters in kindergarten.

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Literacy and Numeracy Performance in Australian School Children in Grades 3, 5, 7, and 9.

We examined the extent to which genes and the environment contributed to variation in and covariation among reading, spelling, grammar and punctuation, writing, and numeracy in Australian school children in Grades 3, 5, 7, and 9. Heritability was generally high: reading .58-.71 (excepting Grade 5 girls), spelling .68-.78; grammar and punctuation .52-.66, writing .39-.52, and numeracy .39-.79. Boys' performance varied more than girls in spelling and numeracy, and the common environment was a greater influence in girls than boys in Grade 3 numeracy and Grade 5 reading. Independent pathway models showed similar genetic and environmental structures at each grade with approximately one third to one half of the variation in each domain due to genes that influenced all domains. The covariation among the domains was largely mediated by genes. Results suggest substantial uniformity in the environmental factors influencing these academic domains.

Does the Environment Have an Enduring Effect on ADHD? A Longitudinal Study of Monozygotic Twin Differences in Children.

Environmental factors play a key role in the development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but the long-term effects of these factors are still unclear. This study analyses data from 1024 monozygotic (identical) twins in Australia, the United States, and Scandinavia who were assessed for ADHD in Preschool, Kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2. Differences within each twin pair were used as a direct measure of non-shared environmental effects. The Trait-State-Occasion (TSO) model developed by Cole et al. (Psychological Methods, 10, 3-20, 2005) was used to separate the non-shared environmental effects into stable factors, and transient factors that excluded measurement error. Stable factors explained, on average, 44 % and 39 % of the environmental variance in hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive symptoms, respectively. Transient effects explained the remaining 56 % and 60 % of variance. The proportion of stable variance was higher than expected based on previous research, suggesting promise for targeted interventions if future research identifies these stable risk factors.

A retrospective longitudinal study of cognitive and language skills in poor reading comprehension.

Fifty-six specific poor reading comprehenders (SPRC) were selected in Grade 4 and retrospectively compared to good comprehenders at preschool (age 5) and at the end of kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2. The results revealed deficits in vocabulary, grammar, verbal memory and early deficits in phonological awareness in most of the SPRC sample, beginning in preschool. The reading comprehension deficits in children with SPRC were not as marked in earlier assessments in Grade 1 and 2, probably because of the greater dependence on word decoding in reading comprehension in the early grades.

On-site treatment of exertional heat stroke.

BACKGROUND: Exertional heat stroke is a devastating condition that can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Rapid cooling is the most effective means of treating heat stroke, but little is published on the safety and logistics of cooling patients on site at a major sporting event. PURPOSE: To describe an on-site exertional heat stroke treatment protocol and to compare the outcomes of patients treated on site to those transferred to hospitals. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive epidemiological study. METHODS: Using race-day medical records and ambulance run sheets, patients who developed exertional heat stroke at the Indianapolis half-marathon from 2005 to 2012 were identified. Exertional heat stroke was defined as runners with a core temperature measured with a rectal thermometer greater than 102° F and altered mental status. Clinical information and patient outcomes were abstracted from the race medical tent and hospital charts by 3 separate trained reviewers using structured methods and a data collection form. Two reviewers, using a RedCAP database and dual-data entry, abstracted records for each patient. A third arbitrated all discrepancies between reviewers. Clinical signs, treatments, and outcomes were calculated using descriptive statistics, and data were grouped and compared for patients treated on site or transferred to local hospitals for treatment. RESULTS: Over 235,000 athletes participated in the event over the 8-year period, with 696 seeking medical care. A total of 32 heat stroke victims were identified during the study period; of these, 22 were treated on site. Of these, 68% were treated with cold-water immersion and 59% were discharged home from the race. Ten exertional heat stroke patients were transported from the race course to local hospitals. None of them underwent cold-water immersion, and 40% of them were subsequently discharged home. No patients in the study died. CONCLUSION: On-site treatment of athletes who develop exertional heat stroke appears to be both safe and effective. On-site treatment may decrease the local burden of critically ill patients to emergency departments during large athletic events.