Glutamine-derived aspartate is required for eIF5A hypusination-mediated translation of HIF-1α to induce the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages.

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are vital contributors to the growth, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance of various cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the exact phenotype of TAMs and the mechanisms underlying their modulation for therapeutic purposes have not been determined. Here, we present compelling evidence that glutamine-derived aspartate in TAMs stimulates spermidine production through the polyamine synthesis pathway, thereby increasing the translation efficiency of HIF-1α via eIF5A hypusination. Consequently, augmented translation of HIF-1α drives TAMs to undergo an increase glycolysis and acquire a metabolic phenotype distinct from that of M2 macrophages. Finally, eIF5A levels in tumor stromal lesions were greater than those in nontumor stromal lesions. Additionally, a higher degree of tumor stromal eIF5A hypusination was significantly associated with a more advanced tumor stage. Taken together, these data highlight the potential of inhibiting hypusinated eIF5A by targeting glutamine metabolism in TAMs, thereby opening a promising avenue for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for HCC.

Acesulfame potassium upregulates PD-L1 in HCC cells by attenuating autophagic degradation.

Artificial sweeteners, which contain no or few calories, have been widely used in various foods and beverages, and are regarded as safe alternatives to sugar by the Food and Drug Administration. While several studies suggest that artificial sweeteners are not related to cancer development, some research has reported their potential association with the risk of cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we investigated whether acesulfame potassium (Ace K), a commonly used artificial sweetener, induces immune evasion of HCC cells by upregulating programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1). Ace K elevated the protein levels of PD-L1 in HCC cells without increasing its mRNA levels. The upregulation of PD-L1 protein levels in HCC cells by Ace K was induced by attenuated autophagic degradation of PD-L1, which was mediated by the Ace K-stimulated ERK1/2-mTORC1 signaling pathway. Ace K-induced upregulation of PD-L1 attenuated T cell-mediated death of HCC cells, thereby promoting immune evasion of HCC cells. In summary, the present study suggests that Ace K promotes HCC progression by upregulating the PD-L1 protein level.

SGLT2 inhibitors prevent LPS-induced M1 macrophage polarization and alleviate inflammatory bowel disease by downregulating NHE1 expression.

BACKGROUND: Classically activated M1 macrophages, characterized by aberrant glycolysis and secretion of inflammatory cytokines, play pivotal roles in inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Recently, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors were shown to suppress Na+/H+ exchanger 1 (NHE1) and Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 1 (NCX1) activity, regulating downstream intracellular Ca2+ concentrations in cardiomyocytes. However, whether SGLT2 inhibitors regulate M1 macrophage polarization by downregulating NHE1 and NCX1 remains unknown. METHODS: We analyzed cellular responses to SGLT2 inhibitors using mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages and peritoneal macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). To induce IBD, we used a dextran sulfate sodium salt-induced colitis mouse model. RESULTS: We observed that NHE1 and NCX1 were overexpressed in LPS-treated macrophages, leading to M1 macrophage polarization. Mechanistically, NHE1 and NCX1-mediated Ca2+ accumulation in the macrophage resulted in enhanced glycolysis by promoting PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 signaling. SGLT2 inhibitors suppressed both the expression levels and activities of NHE1 and NCX1, and consequently downregulated PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 signaling and glycolysis in LPS-treated macrophages. We observed inhibition of LPS-stimulated M1 polarization and cytokine production by SGLT2 inhibitors in vitro, ex vivo, and in an IBD mouse model. CONCLUSIONS: NHE1 promotes M1 macrophage polarization and SGLT2 inhibitors are a novel strategy to treat M1 macrophage-mediated inflammatory diseases, including IBD.

Ulmus davidiana 60% edible ethanolic extract for prevention of pericyte apoptosis in diabetic retinopathy.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a disease that causes visual deficiency owing to vascular leakage or abnormal angiogenesis. Pericyte apoptosis is considered one of the main causes of vascular leakage in diabetic retina, but there are few known therapeutic agents that prevent it. Ulmus davidiana is a safe natural product that has been used in traditional medicine and is attracting attention as a potential treatment for various diseases, but its effect on pericyte loss or vascular leakage in DR is not known at all. In the present study, we investigated on the effects of 60% edible ethanolic extract of U. davidiana (U60E) and catechin 7-O-ß-D-apiofuranoside (C7A), a compound of U. davidiana, on pericyte survival and endothelial permeability. U60E and C7A prevented pericyte apoptosis by inhibiting the activation of p38 and JNK induced by increased glucose and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) levels in diabetic retina. Moreover, U60E and C7A reduced endothelial permeability by preventing pericyte apoptosis in co-cultures of pericytes and endothelial cells. These results suggest that U60E and C7A could be a potential therapeutic agent for reducing vascular leakage by preventing pericyte apoptosis in DR.

Targeting glutamine metabolism as a therapeutic strategy for cancer.

Proliferating cancer cells rely largely on glutamine for survival and proliferation. Glutamine serves as a carbon source for the synthesis of lipids and metabolites via the TCA cycle, as well as a source of nitrogen for amino acid and nucleotide synthesis. To date, many studies have explored the role of glutamine metabolism in cancer, thereby providing a scientific rationale for targeting glutamine metabolism for cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize the mechanism(s) involved at each step of glutamine metabolism, from glutamine transporters to redox homeostasis, and highlight areas that can be exploited for clinical cancer treatment. Furthermore, we discuss the mechanisms underlying cancer cell resistance to agents that target glutamine metabolism, as well as strategies for overcoming these mechanisms. Finally, we discuss the effects of glutamine blockade on the tumor microenvironment and explore strategies to maximize the utility of glutamine blockers as a cancer treatment.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors induce M1 polarization of macrophages: Feasibility of targeted imaging in inflammatory response in vivo.

BACKGROUND: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are considered to be involved in several physiological and pathophysiological processes in addition to the progression of neurological disorders. However, how NMDARs are involved in the glycolytic phenotype of M1 macrophage polarization and the possibility of using them as a bio-imaging probe for macrophage-mediated inflammation remain unclear. METHODS: We analyzed cellular responses to NMDAR antagonism and small interfering RNAs using mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). An NMDAR targeting imaging probe, N-TIP, was produced via the introduction of NMDAR antibody and the infrared fluorescent dye FSD Fluor™ 647. N-TIP binding efficiency was tested in intact and LPS-stimulated BMDMs. N-TIP was intravenously administered to mice with carrageenan (CG)- and LPS-induced paw edema, and in vivo fluorescence imaging was conducted. The anti-inflammatory effects of dexamethasone were evaluated using the N-TIP-mediated macrophage imaging technique. RESULTS: NMDARs were overexpressed in LPS-treated macrophages, subsequently inducing M1 macrophage polarization. Mechanistically, NMDAR-mediated Ca2+ accumulation resulted in LPS-stimulated glycolysis via upregulation of PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 signaling. In vivo fluorescence imaging with N-TIP showed LPS- and CG-induced inflamed lesions at 5 h post-inflammation, and the inflamed lesions could be detected until 24 h. Furthermore, our N-TIP-mediated macrophage imaging technique helped successfully visualize the anti-inflammatory effects of dexamethasone in mice with inflammation. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that NMDAR-mediated glycolysis plays a critical role in M1 macrophage-related inflammation. Moreover, our results suggest that NMDAR targeting imaging probe may be useful in research on inflammatory response in vivo.

Manassantin A inhibits tumour growth under hypoxia through the activation of chaperone-mediated autophagy by modulating Hsp90 activity.

BACKGROUND: Chaperon-mediated autophagy (CMA) has taken on a new emphasis in cancer biology. However, the roles of CMA in hypoxic tumours are poorly understood. We investigated the anti-tumour effects of the natural product ManA through the activation of CMA in tumour progression under hypoxia. METHODS: The effect of ManA on CMA activation was assessed in mouse xenograft models and cells. The gene expressions of HIF-1α, HSP90AA1, and transcription factor EB (TFEB) were analysed using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets to assess the clinical relevance of CMA. RESULTS: ManA activates photoswitchable CMA reporter activity and inhibits Hsp90 chaperone function by disrupting the Hsp90/F1F0-ATP synthase complex. Hsp90 inhibition enhances the interaction between CMA substrates and LAMP-2A and TFEB nuclear localisation, suggesting CMA activation by ManA. ManA-activated CMA retards tumour growth and displays cooperative anti-tumour activity with anti-PD-1 antibody. TCGA datasets show that a combined expression of HSP90AA1High/HIF1AHigh or TFEBLow/HIF1AHigh is strongly correlated with poor prognosis in patients with lung cancer. CONCLUSIONS: ManA-induced CMA activation by modulating Hsp90 under hypoxia induces HIF-1α degradation and reduces tumour growth. Thus, inducing CMA activity by targeting Hsp90 may be a promising therapeutic strategy against hypoxic tumours.

Tumor lactic acid: a potential target for cancer therapy.

Tumor development is influenced by circulating metabolites and most tumors are exposed to substantially elevated levels of lactic acid and low levels of nutrients, such as glucose and glutamine. Tumor-derived lactic acid, the major circulating carbon metabolite, regulates energy metabolism and cancer cell signaling pathways, while also acting as an energy source and signaling molecule. Recent studies have yielded new insights into the pro-tumorigenic action of lactic acid and its metabolism. These insights suggest an anti-tumor therapeutic strategy targeting the oncometabolite lactic acid, with the aim of improving the efficacy and clinical safety of tumor metabolism inhibitors. This review describes the current understanding of the multifunctional roles of tumor lactic acid, as well as therapeutic approaches targeting lactic acid metabolism, including lactate dehydrogenase and monocarboxylate transporters, for anti-cancer therapy.

DN200434, an orally available inverse agonist of estrogen-related receptor γ, induces ferroptosis in sorafenib-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma.

Sorafenib, originally identified as an inhibitor of multiple oncogenic kinases, induces ferroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. Several pathways that mitigate sorafenib-induced ferroptosis confer drug resistance; thus strategies that enhance ferroptosis increase sorafenib efficacy. Orphan nuclear receptor estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ) is upregulated in human HCC tissues and plays a role in cancer cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to determine whether inhibition of ERRγ with DN200434, an orally available inverse agonist, can overcome resistance to sorafenib through induction of ferroptosis. Sorafenib-resistant HCC cells were less sensitive to sorafenibinduced ferroptosis and showed significantly higher ERRγ levels than sorafenib-sensitive HCC cells. DN200434 induced lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis in sorafenib-resistant HCC cells. Mechanistically, DN200434 increased mitochondrial ROS generation by reducing glutathione/glutathione disulfide levels, which subsequently reduced mTOR activity and GPX4 levels. DN200434 induced amplification of the antitumor effects of sorafenib was confirmed in a tumor xenograft model. The present results indicate that DN200434 may be a novel therapeutic strategy to re-sensitize HCC cells to sorafenib. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(11): 547-552].

Plant-exclusive domain of trans-editing enzyme ProXp-ala confers dimerization and enhanced tRNA binding.

Faithful translation of the genetic code is critical for the viability of all living organisms. The trans-editing enzyme ProXp-ala prevents Pro to Ala mutations during translation by hydrolyzing misacylated Ala-tRNAPro that has been synthesized by prolyl-tRNA synthetase. Plant ProXp-ala sequences contain a conserved C-terminal domain (CTD) that is absent in other organisms; the origin, structure, and function of this extra domain are unknown. To characterize the plant-specific CTD, we performed bioinformatics and computational analyses that provided a model consistent with a conserved α-helical structure. We also expressed and purified wildtype Arabidopsis thaliana (At) ProXp-ala in Escherichia coli, as well as variants lacking the CTD or containing only the CTD. Circular dichroism spectroscopy confirmed a loss of α-helical signal intensity upon CTD truncation. Size-exclusion chromatography with multiangle laser-light scattering revealed that wildtype At ProXp-ala was primarily dimeric and CTD truncation abolished dimerization in vitro. Furthermore, bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays in At protoplasts support a role for the CTD in homodimerization in vivo. The deacylation rate of Ala-tRNAPro by At ProXp-ala was also significantly reduced in the absence of the CTD, and kinetic assays indicated that the reduction in activity is primarily due to a tRNA binding defect. Overall, these results broaden our understanding of eukaryotic translational fidelity in the plant kingdom. Our study reveals that the plant-specific CTD plays a significant role in substrate binding and canonical editing function. Through its ability to facilitate protein-protein interactions, we propose the CTD may also provide expanded functional potential for trans-editing enzymes in plants.

Melatonin inhibits glycolysis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by downregulating mitochondrial respiration and mTORC1 activity.

Various mechanisms have been suggested to explain the chemopreventive and tumor-inhibitory effects of melatonin. Despite the growing evidence supporting melatonin-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, it remains largely unknown how this phenomenon modulates metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells. The aim of our study was to identify the mechanism underlying the anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects of melatonin, which is known to inhibit glycolysis. We analyzed the time-dependent effects of melatonin on mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis in liver cancer cells. The results showed that from a cell bioenergetic point of view, melatonin caused an acute reduction in mitochondrial respiration, however, increased reactive oxygen species production, thereby inhibiting mTORC1 activity from an early stage post-treatment without affecting glycolysis. Nevertheless, administration of melatonin for a longer time reduced expression of c-Myc protein, thereby suppressing glycolysis via downregulation of HK2 and LDHA. The data presented herein suggest that melatonin suppresses mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis simultaneously in HCC cells, leading to anti-cancer effects. Thus, melatonin can be used as an adjuvant agent for therapy of liver cancer. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(9): 459-464].

Macropinocytosis is an alternative pathway of cysteine acquisition and mitigates sorafenib-induced ferroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Macropinocytosis, an important nutrient-scavenging pathway in certain cancer cells, allows cells to compensate for intracellular amino acid deficiency under nutrient-poor conditions. Ferroptosis caused by cysteine depletion plays a pivotal role in sorafenib responses during hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) therapy. However, it is not known whether macropinocytosis functions as an alternative pathway to acquire cysteine in sorafenib-treated HCC, and whether it subsequently mitigates sorafenib-induced ferroptosis. This study aimed to investigate whether sorafenib drives macropinocytosis induction, and how macropinocytosis confers ferroptosis resistance on HCC cells. METHODS: Macropinocytosis, both in HCC cells and HCC tissues, was evaluated by measuring TMR-dextran uptake or lysosomal degradation of DQ-BSA, and ferroptosis was evaluated via C11-BODIPY fluorescence and 4-HNE staining. Sorafenib-induced ferroptosis and macropinocytosis were validated in tumor tissues taken from HCC patients who underwent ultrasound-guided needle biopsy. RESULTS: Sorafenib increased macropinocytosis in human HCC specimens and xenografted HCC tissues. Sorafenib-induced mitochondrial dysfunction was responsible for activation of PI3K-RAC1-PAK1 signaling, and amplified macropinocytosis in HCC. Importantly, macropinocytosis prevented sorafenib-induced ferroptosis by replenishing intracellular cysteine that was depleted by sorafenib treatment; this rendered HCC cells resistant to sorafenib. Finally, inhibition of macropinocytosis by amiloride markedly enhanced the anti-tumor effect of sorafenib, and sensitized resistant tumors to sorafenib. CONCLUSION: In summary, sorafenib induced macropinocytosis, which conferred drug resistance by mitigating sorafenib-induced ferroptosis. Thus, targeting macropinocytosis is a promising therapeutic strategy to facilitate ferroptosis-based therapy for HCC.

Inhibition of Glutamine Utilization Synergizes with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor to Promote Antitumor Immunity.

Despite its outstanding clinical success, immune checkpoint blockade remains ineffective in many patients. Accordingly, combination therapy capable of achieving greater antitumor immunity is urgently required. Here, we report that limiting glutamine metabolism in cancer cells bolsters the effectiveness of anti-programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) antibody. Inhibition of glutamine utilization increased PD-L1 levels in cancer cells, thereby inactivating co-cultured T cells. Under glutamine-limited conditions, reduced cellular GSH levels caused an upregulation of PD-L1 expression by impairing SERCA activity, which activates the calcium/NF-κB signaling cascade. Consequently, in tumors grown in immunocompetent mice, inhibition of glutamine metabolism decreased the antitumor activity of T cells. In combination with anti-PD-L1, however, glutamine depletion strongly promoted the antitumor efficacy of T cells in vitro and in vivo due to simultaneous increases in Fas/CD95 levels. Our results demonstrate the relevance of cancer glutamine metabolism to antitumor immunity and suggest that co-targeting of glutamine metabolism and PD-L1 represents a promising therapeutic approach.

Melatonin inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and apoptosis through upregulation of Sestrin2.

Excessive vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation contributes to the development of atherosclerosis and restenosis. Furthermore, apoptosis of VSMCs accelerates plaque rupture in the atherosclerotic vessels. Therefore, a strategy that regulates both VSMC proliferation and apoptosis is essential for the development of novel pharmacological tools for the treatment of atherosclerosis. Despite mounting evidence supporting the benefits of melatonin in diverse metabolic diseases, the role of melatonin in VSMC growth remains largely unknown. The present study revealed that melatonin inhibited both proliferation and apoptosis of primary cultured rat VSMCs. Melatonin induced mitochondrial energetic stress in VSMCs and subsequent induction of Sestrin2 via C/EBPß. Melatonin-induced Sestrin2 suppressed mTORC1 activity in VSMCs, contributing to suppression of VSMC proliferation. Additionally, melatonin-induced upregulation of Sestrin2 blocked apoptosis by preventing excessive ROS generation. The results demonstrated that melatonin controlled VSMC proliferation and apoptosis via Sestrin2-mediated inhibition of mTORC1 and ROS scavenging. Therefore, melatonin should be considered as a lead compound for therapies aimed at preventing vessel lumen constriction during the course of atherosclerosis and restenosis.

Oncogenic KRAS signaling activates mTORC1 through COUP-TFII-mediated lactate production.

Oncogenic signals contribute to enhanced glycolysis and mTORC1 activity, leading to rapid cell proliferation in cancer. Regulation of glycolysis and mTORC1 by PI3K/Akt signaling is well established, but how KRAS-induced MEK signaling regulates these pathways remains poorly understood. Here, we report a role for MEK-driven lactate production in mTORC1 activation in KRAS-activated cells. KRAS/MEK-induced upregulation of the chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcriptional factor II (COUP-TFII) increases the expression of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), resulting in lactate production and mTORC1 activation. Further, lactate inhibits the interaction of TSC2 and Rheb, leading to the cellular activation of mTORC1 irrespective of growth factor stimulation. These findings suggest that COUP-TFII is a novel oncogenic mediator, connecting KRAS signaling and glycolysis, and leading to mTORC1 activation and cellular growth.

Transcription Factor Eb Is Required for Macropinocytosis-Mediated Growth Recovery of Nutrient-Deprived Kras-Mutant Cells.

Macropinocytosis is a regulated form of endocytosis that mediates the nonselective uptake of nutrients to support growth under nutrient-deprived conditions. KRAS-mutant cancer cells upregulate macropinocytosis to import extracellular proteins, which subsequently undergo proteolytic degradation in the lysosome. Although transcription factor EB (TFEB) is a master regulator of lysosomal biogenesis and function, its role in the degradation of extracellular protein from macropinocytosis in KRAS-mutant cells has not previously been elucidated. In this study, we investigated the role of TFEB in the recovery of macropinocytosis-mediated mTORC1 activity and cell growth under nutrient depletion. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) expressing KrasG12D and KRAS-mutant human cancer cells took up markedly higher levels of tetramethylrhodamine (TMR)-dextran than the corresponding wild-type cells. siRNA-mediated inhibition of TFEB did not influence extracellular TMR-dextran uptake, but significantly attenuated lysosomal degradation of extracellular protein. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) treatment restored p-S6K levels and cell proliferation suppressed by leucine deprivation, and these effects were blocked by siTFEB. Collectively, our results show that TFEB plays a role in macropinocytosis-mediated KRAS-mutant cell growth under nutrient deprivation by promoting lysosomal degradation of extracellular proteins.

Lactate dehydrogenase-A is indispensable for vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration.

The proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Increased aerobic glycolysis is a key feature of cellular phenotypes including cancer and immune cells. However, the role of aerobic glycolysis in the atherogenic phenotype of VSMCs remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated the role of lactate dehydrogenase-A (LDHA), which is a key enzyme for glycolysis, in the proliferation and migration of VSMCs. Activation of primary rat VSMCs with fetal bovine serum (FBS) or platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) increased their proliferation and migration, glycolytic activity, and expression of LDHA. Wound healing and transwell migration assays demonstrated that small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of LDHA and pharmacological inhibition of LDHA by oxamate both effectively inhibited VSMC proliferation and migration. Inhibition of LDHA activity by oxamate reduced PDGF-stimulated glucose uptake, lactate production, and ATP production. Taken together, this study shows that enhanced glycolysis in PDGF- or FBS-stimulated VSMCs plays an important role in their proliferation and migration and suggests that LDHA is a potential therapeutic target to prevent vessel lumen constriction during the course of atherosclerosis and restenosis.

A Positive Feedback Loop between Sestrin2 and mTORC2 Is Required for the Survival of Glutamine-Depleted Lung Cancer Cells.

Proper regulation of mTORC1 and mTORC2 upon nutrient starvation is critical for cancer cell survival. Upregulation of Sestrin2 in response to glutamine deprivation rescues cell death by suppressing mTORC1. However, the contribution of mTORC2 to Sestrin2-mediated mTORC1 suppression remains unclear. Here, we report that both Sestrin2 and mTORC2 are upregulated in glutamine-depleted lung cancer cells. Moreover, glutamine depletion caused Sestrin2 to associate with mTORC2, which was required for the increase in Sestrin2 protein stability and the reduction in mTORC1 activity. Ultimately, differential regulation of mTORC1 and 2 by Sestrin2 reprogramed lipid metabolism and enabled glutamine-depleted lung cancer cells to survive by maintaining energy and redox balance. Importantly, combined inhibition of glutamine utilization and Sestrin2 induced lung cancer cell death both in vitro and in vivo. This study shows that differential Sestrin2-mediated regulation of mTORC1 and mTORC2 is necessary for the survival of glutamine-depleted lung cancer cells.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase regulates hepatitis C virus replication.

During replication, hepatitis C virus (HCV) utilizes macromolecules produced by its host cell. This process requires host cellular metabolic reprogramming to favor elevated levels of aerobic glycolysis. Therefore, we evaluated whether pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK), a mitochondrial enzyme that promotes aerobic glycolysis, can regulate HCV replication. Levels of c-Myc, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), PDK1, PDK3, glucokinase, and serine biosynthetic enzymes were compared between HCV-infected and uninfected human liver and Huh-7.5 cells infected with or without HCV. Protein and mRNA expression of c-Myc, HIF-1α, and glycolytic enzymes were significantly higher in HCV-infected human liver and hepatocytes than in uninfected controls. This increase was accompanied by upregulation of serine biosynthetic enzymes, suggesting cellular metabolism was altered toward facilitated nucleotide synthesis essential for HCV replication. JQ1, a c-Myc inhibitor, and dichloroacetate (DCA), a PDK inhibitor, decreased the expression of glycolytic and serine synthetic enzymes in HCV-infected hepatocytes, resulting in suppressed viral replication. Furthermore, when co-administered with IFN-α or ribavirin, DCA further inhibited viral replication. In summary, HCV reprograms host cell metabolism to favor glycolysis and serine biosynthesis; this is mediated, at least in part, by increased PDK activity, which provides a surplus of nucleotide precursors. Therefore, blocking PDK activity might have therapeutic benefits against HCV replication.

Estrogen-related receptor γ is upregulated in liver cancer and its inhibition suppresses liver cancer cell proliferation via induction of p21 and p27.

Orphan nuclear receptor estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ) regulates cell growth and tumorigenesis in various cancers. However, the clinical relevance of ERRγ to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. Here we examined the clinical significance of ERRγ in HCC and its potential as a therapeutic target. ERRγ levels in tissues from completely resected specimens from 190 HCC patients were examined immunohistochemically and their association with clinical stage and pathological grade was analyzed. Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of ERRγ (siRNA-ERRγ) or an ERRγ inverse agonist, GSK5182, were also used to examine the effects of ERRγ inhibition on the proliferation and growth of a human hepatoma cell line, PLC/PRF/5. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that tumor tissues showed higher levels of ERRγ-positivity than adjacent non-tumor lesions. Tumors showing high levels of ERRγ immunoreactivity also had advanced tumor node metastasis (TNM) and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stages and a higher Edmondson-Steiner grade. In addition, high-level expression of ERRγ in tumors of advanced TNM stage correlated with poorer overall survival. Treatment of PLC/PRF/5 cells with siRNA-ERRγ or GSK5182 inhibited proliferation through G1 arrest, increased expression of p21 and p27 and decreased expression of phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein. GSK5182-induced reactive oxygen species also suppressed the proliferation of PLC/PRF/5 cells. The present study showed that ERRγ expression is clinically significant in HCC; therefore, it can be considered a biomarker for HCC diagnosis. Moreover, the results provide a rationale for the use of ERRγ inhibitors such as GSK5182 as potential therapeutic agents.