Proof-of-concept validation of the mechanism of action of Src tyrosine kinase inhibitors in dystrophic mdx mouse muscle: in vivo and in vitro studies.

Src tyrosine kinase (TK), a redox-sensitive protein overexpressed in dystrophin-deficient muscles, can contribute to damaging signaling by phosphorylation and degradation of ß-dystroglycan (ß-DG). We performed a proof-of-concept preclinical study to validate this hypothesis and the benefit-safety ratio of a pharmacological inhibition of Src-TK in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Src-TK inhibitors PP2 and dasatinib were administered for 5 weeks to treadmill-exercised mdx mice. The outcome was evaluated in vivo and ex vivo on functional, histological and biochemical disease-related parameters. Considering the importance to maintain a proper myogenic program, the potential cytotoxic effects of both compounds, as well as their cytoprotection against oxidative stress-induced damage, was also assessed in C2C12 cells. In line with the hypothesis, both compounds restored the level of ß-DG and reduced its phosphorylated form without changing basal expression of genes of interest, corroborating a mechanism at post-translational level. The histological profile of gastrocnemius muscle was slightly improved as well as the level of plasma biomarkers. However, amelioration of in vivo and ex vivo functional parameters was modest, with PP2 being more effective than dasatinib. Both compounds reached appreciable levels in skeletal muscle and liver, supporting proper animal exposure. Dasatinib exerted a greater concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect on C2C12 cells than the more selective PP2, while being less protective against H2O2 cytotoxicity, even though at concentrations higher than those experienced during in vivo treatments. Our results support the interest of Src-TK as drug target in dystrophinopathies, although further studies are necessary to assess the therapeutic potential of inhibitors in DMD.

Statins and fenofibrate affect skeletal muscle chloride conductance in rats by differently impairing ClC-1 channel regulation and expression.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Statins and fibrates can produce mild to life-threatening skeletal muscle damage. Resting chloride channel conductance (gCl), carried by the ClC-1 channel, is reduced in muscles of rats chronically treated with fluvastatin, atorvastatin or fenofibrate, along with increased resting cytosolic calcium in statin-treated rats. A high gCl, controlled by the Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinase C (PKC), maintains sarcolemma electrical stability and its reduction alters muscle function. Here, we investigated how statins and fenofibrate impaired gCl. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: In rats treated with fluvastatin, atorvastatin or fenofibrate, we examined the involvement of PKC in gCl reduction by the two intracellular microelectrodes technique and ClC-1 mRNA level by quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction. Direct drug effects were tested by patch clamp analysis on human ClC-1 channels expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. KEY RESULTS: Chelerythrine, a PKC inhibitor, applied in vitro on muscle dissected from atorvastatin-treated rats fully restored gCl, suggesting the involvement of this enzyme in statin action. Chelerythrine partially restored gCl in muscles from fluvastatin-treated rats but not in those from fenofibrate-treated rats, implying additional mechanisms for gCl impairment. Accordingly, a decrease of ClC-1 channel mRNA was found in both fluvastatin- and fenofibrate-treated rat muscles. Fenofibric acid, the in vivo metabolite of fenofibrate, but not fluvastatin, rapidly reduced chloride currents in HEK 293 cells. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data suggest multiple mechanisms underlie the effect of statins and fenofibrate on ClC-1 channel conductance. While statins promote Ca(2+)-mediated PKC activation, fenofibrate directly inhibits ClC-1 channels and both fluvastatin and fenofibrate impair expression of mRNA for ClC-1.

In vivo silencing of aquaporin-1 by RNA interference inhibits angiogenesis in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay.

Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) is a water channel protein mainly expressed in endothelial and epithelial cells of many tissues, including the vasculature where it serves to increase cell membrane water permeability. Previous studies in active multiple myeloma patients and in AQP1 KO mice indicated an involvement of AQP1 in physiological and tumor angiogenesis. To understand the physiological role of AQP1 in angiogenesis, we used a 21-nucleotide small interfering RNA duplexes (siRNA) to knockdown AQP1 in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM), a commonly used in vivo assay to study both angiogenic and angiostatic molecules. Chicken AQP1 sequence was identified and utilized to synthesize a siRNA directed to the AQP1 sequence. We then tested the efficiency of the siRNA in vitro, using an AQP1 transfected cell line. The level of AQP1 protein reduction obtained using siRNA was 98 % and 92 % after 1 and 2 day transfection respectively. RNA interference experiments were then performed in vivo by using the CAM assay. Results showed that after 4 days of treatment, AQP1 siRNA was able to strongly inhibit angiogenesis. This is the first study showing the in vivo use of RNA interference technique in the CAM assay. Our results strongly support the hypothesis that AQP1 could have a key role in physiological and pathological angiogenesis.