Atmospheric Carbon and Transport - America (ACT-America) Data Sets: Description, Management, and Delivery.

The ACT-America project is a NASA Earth Venture Suborbital-2 mission designed to study the transport and fluxes of greenhouse gases. The open and freely available ACT-America data sets provide airborne in situ measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane, trace gases, aerosols, clouds, and meteorological properties, airborne remote sensing measurements of aerosol backscatter, atmospheric boundary layer height and columnar content of atmospheric carbon dioxide, tower-based measurements, and modeled atmospheric mole fractions and regional carbon fluxes of greenhouse gases over the Central and Eastern United States. We conducted 121 research flights during five campaigns in four seasons during 2016-2019 over three regions of the US (Mid-Atlantic, Midwest and South) using two NASA research aircraft (B-200 and C-130). We performed three flight patterns (fair weather, frontal crossings, and OCO-2 underflights) and collected more than 1,140 h of airborne measurements via level-leg flights in the atmospheric boundary layer, lower, and upper free troposphere and vertical profiles spanning these altitudes. We also merged various airborne in situ measurements onto a common standard sampling interval, which brings coherence to the data, creates geolocated data products, and makes it much easier for the users to perform holistic analysis of the ACT-America data products. Here, we report on detailed information of data sets collected, the workflow for data sets including storage and processing of the quality controlled and quality assured harmonized observations, and their archival and formatting for users. Finally, we provide some important information on the dissemination of data products including metadata and highlights of applications of ACT-America data sets.

Monitoring of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in Rice Mills using Pheromone-Baited Traps.

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is a common pest in rice mills. With limited information in the literature addressing T. castaneum in rice processing facilities, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of T. castaneum inside and outside of three commercial rice milling facilities and one rice packaging plant from June 2012 to August 2014 using pheromone-baited dome traps. Each mill had very different population trends with fewer numbers collected in rough rice storage areas. T. castaneum were more commonly collected in processing areas. Beetle infestation at all the mills was evaluated using the threshold of mean beetle capture of 2.5 beetles per trap per 2 wk period. Trap captures were below threshold for all but one facility. Temperatures inside were ~1°C warmer than outside temperatures, with these temperature differences more noticeable during cool months (October-March). Higher numbers of T. castaneum were captured in 2012 in comparison to 2013, with higher beetle numbers observed during warmer (April-September) than cooler months. With variation in trap capture of T. castaneum occurring among all facilities, this study illustrates that having a monitoring program designed for each facility is important to help managers decide when and where to apply pest management tactics. The use of pheromone traps could provide information to mill managers to find locations within a mill that are most vulnerable to infestation by T. castaneum, and to assist with the timing of control interventions.

Influence of age, mating status, sex, quantity of food, and long-term food deprivation on red flour beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) flight initiation.

Effects of age, sex, presence or absence of food, mating status, quantity of food, and food deprivation on rate of and time of flight initiation of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), were determined. Flight initiation declined with increasing age in both presence and absence of food. However, flight initiation was lower when food was present in the flight chambers than in the absence of food. In the presence of food, both mated and virgin beetles were equally likely to disperse by flight. However, in the absence of food, mated beetles initiated flight more readily that virgin individuals. Flight initiation was greatest when little or no food was present. The presence of varying quantities of food inside the flight chambers impacted the number of progeny produced by females before flight, but not the timing of flight. Rate of flight initiation was higher for beetles deprived of food for short periods of time compared with flight initiation of beetles with food in the flight chamber. Flight initiation decreased with increasing time without food. There were no differences in flight tendencies between males and females in the experiments reported here. Our results suggest that T. castaneum uses flight as a mechanism to disperse to new environments during almost any part of their life span and that this type of dispersion does not fit with the model of the so-called true migratory species that involves an "oogenesis-flight syndrome.

Monitoring Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) in pilot-scale warehouses treated with beta-cyfluthrin: are residual insecticides and trapping compatible?

Integrated pest management strategies for cereal processing facilities often include both pheromone-baited pitfall traps and crack and crevice applications of a residual insecticide such as the pyrethroid cyfluthrin. In replicated pilot-scale warehouses, a 15-week-long experiment was conducted comparing population trends suggested by insect captures in pheromone-baited traps to direct estimates obtained by sampling the food patches in untreated and cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. Warehouses were treated, provisioned with food patches and then infested with all life stages of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Food patches, both those initially infested and additional uninfested, were surrounded by cyfluthrin bands to evaluate if insects would cross the bands. Results show that insect captures correlated with population trends determined by direct product samples in the untreated warehouses, but not the cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. However, dead insects recovered from the floor correlated with the insect densities observed with direct samples in the cyfluthrin-treated warehouses. Initially, uninfested food patches were exploited immediately and after six weeks harbored similar infestation densities to the initially infested food patches. These data show that pest management professionals relying on insect captures in pheromone-baited traps in cyfluthrin-treated structures could be deceived into believing that a residual insecticide application was suppressing population growth, when the population was actually increasing at the same rate as an untreated population.

Responses of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema riobrave to its insect hosts, Galleria mellonella and Tenebrio molitor.

Potential hosts for infective juveniles of entomopathogenic nematodes can vary considerably in quality based on the characteristics of the host species/stage, physiological status (e.g. stress, feeding on toxins), and infection status (heterospecific or conspecific infection). In this study, we investigated responses of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema riobrave to hosts (Galleria mellonella or Tenebrio molitor) that were previously parasitized with conspecifics or injected with the nematode-symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus sp., to determine if there is a preference for previously parasitized/injected hosts and when this preference might occur. In no-choice bioassays, the number of juveniles infecting both host species decreased with increasing time post-infection. However, infective juveniles continued to infect previously parasitized hosts up to 72 h. Significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for 24 h post-infection G. mellonella larvae over uninfected, and by 24 h post-injection G. mellonella larvae over 48 h post-injection larvae. No significant preference was exhibited by S. riobrave for T. molitor hosts previously parasitized with conspecifics or those injected with bacteria in any treatment combination. Such preference for, or continued infection of parasitized insects, has the potential to impact nematode efficacy.

Attraction behaviour of three entomopathogenic nematode species towards infected and uninfected hosts.

Entomopathogenic nematode infective juveniles are likely to encounter both uninfected and infected insects and host quality depends on the stage of the infection. We hypothesized that nematode response to infected hosts will change over the course of an infection. Here, we tested this hypothesis by focusing on the influence of host infection status on long-range attraction to host volatile cues. The attraction response of 3 nematode species (Steinernema carpocapsae, S. glaseri and S. riobrave) with different foraging strategies to infected and uninfected insects (Galleria mellonella and Tenebrio molitor) was tested at 24 h intervals from start of infection to emergence of infective juveniles from depleted host. As expected, based on their foraging strategies, S. carpocapsae was not very responsive to hosts, S. glaseri was highly responsive and S. riobrave was intermediate. Generally, the level of attraction did not change with time after infection and was similar between infected and uninfected hosts. An exception was S. glaseri infected T. molitor, which tended to be less attractive to S. glaseri than uninfected hosts. These results suggest that any influence of host infection status on infection behaviour is occurring at subsequent steps in the host-infection process than host attraction, or involves non-volatile cues.

Effect of temperature, exposure interval, and depth of diatomaceous earth treatment on distribution, mortality, and progeny production of lesser grain borer (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in stored wheat.

Diatomaceous earth (DE) can be used as a surface treatment in stored wheat Triticum aestivum (L.) to control pest infestations. However, it is not known how the thickness of the DE-treated wheat layer or grain temperature impact effectiveness. Therefore, we conducted an experiment in growth chambers to assess the effect of different surface layers of hard winter wheat combined with DE on spatial distribution, adult survival, and progeny production of lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), and to determine whether temperature and exposure interval modified this effect. When adult lesser grain borers were released in experimental towers containing untreated wheat or wheat admixed with DE to a surface layer depth of 15.2, 22.9, or 30.5 cm, they were able to penetrate all DE layers and oviposit in the untreated wheat below. However, survival was significantly reduced in adults exposed to DE. Survival decreased both with increasing depth of the DE-treated wheat and with exposure interval. Temperature had no effect on adult survival, but significantly more progeny were produced at 32 than at 27 degrees C. Progeny production was inversely correlated with the depth of the DE-treated layer. Vertical distribution patterns of parental beetles were not significantly different among treatments or exposure intervals; however, more insects were found at greater depths at 32 than at 27 degrees C. The F1 production was reduced by 22% at the thickest DE-treated layer. However, we conclude that this level of survival could leave a residual population of lesser grain borers that would probably be above an allowable threshold for insect damage.

Distribution and dispersal behavior of Trogoderma variabile and Plodia interpunctella outside a food processing plant.

The distribution and dispersal distances of insects outside of food processing and storage facilities potentially have an important influence on the population dynamics and spatial distribution of insects inside facilities. In this study, Trogoderma variabile Ballion and Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) sex pheromone-baited trap captures outside and inside a food processing facility were measured, the relationship between trap captures outside and inside the facility was evaluated, and the dispersal ability of the males of these species was assessed using self-mark-recapture stations. T. variabile and P. interpunctella males were captured in high numbers outside the food facility. The two species differed in their spatial distribution around the facility, with T. variabile being more closely associated with the proximity of the building, but most likely originating from sources outside the building. For marked T. variabile, the average recapture distance was 75 m (range 21-508 m) and for marked P. interpunctella the average recapture distance was 135.6 m (range 21-276 m). In an immigration/emigration experiment, three T. variabile marked outside were recaptured inside, but no T. variabile marked inside were recaptured outside and no marked P. interpunctella were recaptured in either location. The potential for outside populations to influence inside populations has implications for the effectiveness of different management and monitoring tools.

Evolution of host search strategies in entomopathogenic nematodes.

There is interspecific variation in infective juvenile behavior within the entomopathogenic nematode genus Steinernema. This variation is consistent with use of different foraging strategies along a continuum between ambush and cruise foraging. To address questions about the evolution of foraging strategy, behavioral and morphological characters were mapped onto a phylogeny of Steinernema. Three species, all in the same clade, were classified as ambushers based on standing bout duration and host-finding ability. One clade of six species were all cruisers based on both host-finding and lack of standing behavior. All species in the ambusher clade had a high rate of jumping, all species in the cruiser clade had no jumping, and most intermediate foragers exhibited some level of jumping. Response to volatile and contact host cues was variable, even within a foraging strategy. Infective juveniles in the ambusher clade were all in the smallest size category, species in the cruiser clade were in the largest size categories, and intermediate foragers tended to be more intermediate in size. We hypothesize that the ancestral Steinernema species was an intermediate forager and that ambush and cruise foraging both evolved at least once in the genus.

Patch exploitation by female red flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum.

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) has had a long association with human stored food and can be a major pest in anthropogenic structures used for the processing and storage of grain-based products. Anthropogenic structures are fragmented landscapes characterized by spatially and temporally patchy resources. Here we investigate the ability of female T. castaneum to evaluate the quality of small patches of food and to adjust the number of eggs they lay per patch (i.e., clutch size) to maximize fitness gains. In multiple choice, paired choice and no choice experiments females tended to lay more eggs in larger amounts of flour. The number of eggs that they lay in a patch of flour was consistent with that predicted to optimize production of adults from that patch (i.e., the 'Lack' clutch size). Progeny size was only significantly impacted in the smallest patch sizes.

Monitoring stored-product pests in food processing plants with pheromone trapping, contour mapping, and mark-recapture.

Distribution and movement patterns of several species of stored-product pests in a food processing plant were investigated. The objectives of this study were to determine the temporal and spatial variation in abundance of stored-product pests using pheromone traps; assess the effectiveness of trap type, location, and number on monitoring insect populations; and to evaluate the nature of pheromone trap capture hot spots by measuring patterns of insect movement. We determined that the distributions of Trogoderma variabile Ballion, Lasioderina serricorne (F.), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) within the facility were typically clumped and that foci of high trap captures, based on visual observation of contour maps, varied among species and over time. Trap type and location influenced the number of T. variabile captured: traps on the floor and along walls captured more individuals than hanging traps and traps next to support pillars. T. variabile was the predominant insect pest at this facility and from mark-recapture studies, we found that individual beetles moved across multiple floors in the facility and from 7 to 216 m though the warehouse.

Mechanisms underlying sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis [L.]) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) infestation of consumer food packaging materials.

The sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), is an extremely destructive pest of packaged consumer food products. The beetle is not believed to chew directly through packaging materials, but to use openings or flaws in damaged or improperly sealed packages to gain entry. We investigated the behavioral mechanisms by which the sawtoothed grain beetle infests packages with flaws. Significantly more sawtoothed grain beetles infested consumer food packages that had been punctured with 0.4 mm diameter holes, to simulate packaging flaws that preclude adults, than when packages had no flaws. In a test arena, females laid more eggs into or near the hole in a plastic packaging film, when they were able to contact the food through the hole than when they could not contact the food. First instar larvae placed either 1 mm or 1 cm away entered holes when food was present, indicating that packages could become infested if eggs were laid near holes. In the absence of food, neither adults nor larvae responded to holes. This study has shown the importance of sound packaging in preventing insect infestation.

Phylogeny of Steinernema travassos, 1927 (Cephalobina: Steinernematidae) inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences and morphological characters.

Entomopathogenic nematodes in Steinernema, together with their symbiont bacteria Xenorhabdus, are obligate and lethal parasites of insects that can provide effective biological control of some important lepidopteran, dipteran, and coleopteran pests of commercial crops. Phylogenetic relationships among 21 Steinernema species were estimated using 28S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences and morphological characters. Sequences of the rDNA internal transcribed spacers were obtained to provide additional molecular characters to resolve relationships among Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema scapterisci, Steinernema siamkavai, and Steinernema monticolum. Four equally parsimonious trees resulted from combined analysis of 28S sequences and 22 morphological characters. Clades inferred from analyses of molecular sequences and combined datasets were primarily reliably supported as assessed by bootstrap resampling, whereas those inferred from morphological data alone were not. Although partially consistent with some traditional expectations and previous phylogenetic studies, the hypotheses inferred from molecular evidence, and those from combined analysis of morphological and molecular data, provide a new and comprehensive framework for evaluating character evolution of steinernematids. Interpretation of morphological character evolution on 6 trees inferred from sequence data and combined evidence suggests that many structural features of these nematodes are highly homoplastic, and that some structures previously used to hypothesize relationships represent ancestral character states.

Are there temporarily non-infectious dauer stages in entomopathogenic nematode populations: a test of the phased infectivity hypothesis.

Many studies of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) have reported that only a small proportion (typically < 40%) of infective stages (dauers), even under apparently ideal conditions, actually infect a host. The 'phased infectivity hypothesis' is most frequently invoked to explain this pattern of low infection with entomopathogenic nematodes. It proposes that at a given point in time not all individuals are infectious i.e. infectiousness is delayed in some individuals. We tested experimentally several predictions based on this hypothesis. Specifically, if phased infectivity occurs, we should be able to expose dauers to increasing numbers of potential hosts until dauers no longer infect and still be able to recover viable dauers. These recovered dauers which did not infect should be infectious at some later point in time. However, our results do not support the phased infectivity hypothesis for 3 species of Steinernema: most dauers could be recovered in one sampling round when provided with sufficient suitable hosts. In contrast, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora frequently did not infect all available hosts, and infectious dauers were recovered in subsequent sampling rounds. This result is more consistent with the phased infectivity hypotheses, but further research is needed before we can be more confident in the hypothesis. For all species tested, the number of available hosts influenced population levels of nematode infectivity. This suggests that the infection status of hosts can influence whether a dauer infects. Our results indicate that phased infectivity is not a common phenomenon in entomopathogenic nematode dauers, despite the widespread acceptance of this hypothesis.

Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) spatial distribution in turfgrass.

Understanding the temporal and spatial distribution of entomopathogenic nematodes is essential for determining the role of these insect parasites in soil communities and ultimately for their use in suppression of pest insect populations. We measured the vertical and horizontal distribution of endemic populations of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) in turfgrass. Vertical distribution was determined by taking soil cores every 3 h from 05.00 to 23.00 h, over 4 days, and dividing the cores into 8, 1 cm deep sections. Steinernema carpocapsae was recovered primarily near the soil surface: 50% of positive sections were recovered in the thatch or first 1 cm of soil. S. carpocapsae recovery was lower during the middle of the day and none were recovered in the upper section. H. bacteriophora was recovered uniformly throughout the top 8 cm of soil and its vertical distribution did not change over the course of the day. Horizontal distribution was measured as the number of nematodes recovered from cores taken from 12 randomly selected 0.3 x 0.8 m sections from within four 15.3 x 15.3 m plots. Samples were collected biweekly over a 9-month period. H. bacteriophora had a patchier distribution than S. carpocapsae and both nematode species had more patchy distributions then their potential hosts. Our results support the hypothesis that these two species of nematode utilize different foraging strategies; S. carpocapsae primarily a surface adapted ambusher and H. bacteriophora as a cruise forager.

Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine efficacy. An evaluation of current recommendations.

OBJECTIVE: To determine pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine efficacy in selected populations at risk for serious pneumococcal infection for whom vaccination is currently recommended and to assess duration of protection after vaccination. DESIGN: Vaccine efficacy was estimated using indirect cohort analysis to compare the proportion of pneumococcal infections caused by serotypes included in the vaccines of vaccinated and unvaccinated persons who were identified during 14 years of national surveillance. SETTING: Hospital laboratories in the United States that submitted pneumococcal isolates to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention between May 1978 and April 1992. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2837 persons older than 5 years who had pneumococcus isolated from blood or cerebrospinal fluid. RESULTS: Overall efficacy for preventing infection caused by serotypes included in the vaccine was 57% (95% confidence interval [CI], 45% to 66%). Efficacy among persons with diabetes mellitus was 84% (95% CI, 50% to 95%); with coronary vascular disease, 73% (95% CI, 23% to 90%); with congestive heart failure, 69% (95% CI, 17% to 88%); with chronic pulmonary diseases, 65% (95% CI, 26% to 83%); and with anatomic asplenia, 77% (95% CI, 14% to 95%). Efficacy was not documented for patients with alcoholism or cirrhosis, sickle cell disease, chronic renal failure, lymphoma, leukemia, or multiple myeloma, although sample sizes were small for these groups. Efficacy for immunocompetent persons older than 65 years was 75% (95% CI, 57% to 85%). Efficacy did not decline with increasing interval after vaccination: 5 to 8 years after vaccination it was 71% (95% CI, 24% to 89%), and 9 years or more after vaccination it was 80% (95% CI, 16% to 95%). CONCLUSIONS: Intensified efforts to improve pneumococcal vaccine coverage among certain populations for whom vaccination is currently recommended is indicated, but universal revaccination is not warranted at this time.

Quantitative differences between male and female Hawaiian early adolescents in their primary factors of personality.

Empirically examined were the quantitative differences between 349 female and 230 male Hawaiian early adolescents (M age = 12.1 yr.) in the seven primary personality factors previously found: Super Ego, Ego Strength, Anxiety, Dependence vs Independence, Social Activity vs Shyness, Dominance vs Submission, and Masculinity vs Femininity. A multivariate analysis that examined the difference on each factor while statistically controlling for differences in the others indicated female Hawaiian early adolescents are higher on Dependence and Social Activity and lower on Super Ego and Masculinity scales. In contrast, a univariate analysis which did not statistically control for differences in other factors, although it correctly identified three differences, did not indicate one difference and falsely indicated three. Besides accurately indicating personality differences between Hawaiian early adolescent boys and girls, the research indicates the importance of multivariate analyses of differences between the sexes in further research.

The effects of aerobic exercise on migraine.

A six-week cardiovascular exercise program was provided to 11 subjects classified as experiencing classical migraines, while 9 similarly-classified subjects served as waiting-list controls. Measures included the Canadian Aerobic Fitness test, a headache diary to record the Frequency, Intensity, and Duration of migraine episodes and the Pain-Severity, Affective-Distress, and Support scales of the West Haven-Yale Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI). Measures were taken on both treatment and control subjects before, mid-way through, and upon termination of the first aerobic program, as well as after a two week follow-up. The aerobic classes were effective in significantly improving cardiovascular fitness. Pain Severity decreased significantly for those receiving aerobic training, who also showed (nonsignificant) trends, over the measurement periods, toward reductions in Affective Distress as well as the Frequency, Intensity and Duration of migraines, but these trends failed to reach statistical significance. Control subjects demonstrated no systematic changes in any of the dependent measures. These results suggest possible long-term benefits of aerobic fitness in the management of classical migraines.

Culture-confirmed pneumonia due to Chlamydia pneumoniae.

Diagnosis of infection caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae, a newly recognized respiratory pathogen, has proved difficult. Between July 1987 and April 1988, culture and serologic tests for C. pneumoniae were done on specimens from 49 patients with pneumonia seen at an Atlanta hospital emergency room. Cultures from 3 patients (6%) grew C. pneumoniae. Genus-specific Chlamydia complement fixation titers and microimmunofluorescence titers for C. pneumoniae were suggestive of acute infection in all 3 culture-positive patients. Three other patients had evidence of acute disease by published criteria for antibody titers. Most studies of C. pneumonia have not had culture-proven cases; the 6% rate of positive cultures in this study support the role of C. pneumoniae as a cause of pneumonia. More widespread availability of simplified culture systems for C. pneumoniae is needed. Caution should be used when interpreting serologic tests in the absence of culture confirmation.