Interplay Between Systemic Inflammation, Myocardial Injury, and Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results From the LiiRA Study.

BACKGROUND: Coronary microvascular dysfunction as measured by myocardial flow reserve (MFR) is associated with increased cardiovascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The objective of this study was to determine the association between reducing inflammation with MFR and other measures of cardiovascular risk. METHODS AND RESULTS: Patients with RA with active disease about to initiate a tumor necrosis factor inhibitor were enrolled (NCT02714881). All subjects underwent a cardiac perfusion positron emission tomography scan to quantify MFR at baseline before tumor necrosis factor inhibitor initiation, and after tumor necrosis factor inhibitor initiation at 24 weeks. MFR <2.5 in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease was defined as coronary microvascular dysfunction. Blood samples at baseline and 24 weeks were measured for inflammatory markers (eg, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hsCRP], interleukin-1b, and high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T [hs-cTnT]). The primary outcome was mean MFR before and after tumor necrosis factor inhibitor initiation, with Δhs-cTnT as the secondary outcome. Secondary and exploratory analyses included the correlation between ΔhsCRP and other inflammatory markers with MFR and hs-cTnT. We studied 66 subjects, 82% of which were women, mean RA duration 7.4 years. The median atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk was 2.5%; 47% had coronary microvascular dysfunction and 23% had detectable hs-cTnT. We observed no change in mean MFR before (2.65) and after treatment (2.64, P=0.6) or hs-cTnT. A correlation was observed between a reduction in hsCRP and interleukin-1b with a reduction in hs-cTnT. CONCLUSIONS: In this RA cohort with low prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, nearly 50% of subjects had coronary microvascular dysfunction at baseline. A reduction in inflammation was not associated with improved MFR. However, a modest reduction in interleukin-1b and no other inflammatory pathways was correlated with a reduction in subclinical myocardial injury. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT02714881.

Cardiovascular testing recovery in Latin America one year into the COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of data from an international longitudinal survey.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted Latin America (LATAM), significantly disrupting cardiovascular testing. This study evaluated cardiac procedure recovery in LATAM one year after the outbreak. Methods: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) surveyed 669 centers in 107 countries worldwide, including 135 facilities in 19 LATAM countries, to assess cardiovascular procedure volumes in March 2019, April 2020, and April 2021, and changes in center practices and staffing conditions one year into the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings: LATAM centers reported a 21 % decrease in procedure volumes in April 2021 from pre-pandemic-baseline, vs. a 0 % change in the rest of the world (RoW), and greater volume reductions for almost all procedure types. Centers in Central America and Mexico reported the largest procedure reductions (47 % reduction) compared to the Caribbean (15 %), and South America (14 %, p = 0.01), and this LATAM region was a significant predictor of lower procedure recovery in multivariable regression. More LATAM centers reported reduced salaries and increased layoffs of clinical staff compared to RoW, and LATAM respondents estimated that half of physician and non-physician staff experienced excess psychological stress related to the pandemic, compared to 25 % and 30 % in RoW (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Cardiovascular testing recovery in LATAM trailed behind RoW for most procedure types, with centers in Central America and Mexico reporting the greatest volume reductions. This study found lasting impacts of COVID-19 on cardiovascular care in LATAM and the need for mental health support for LATAM healthcare workers in current and future pandemics.

Assessment of Cardiac Sarcoidosis: FDG PET and BMIPP SPECT.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Cardiac sarcoidosis (CS) is an inflammatory disease of unknown etiology that can lead to life-threatening arrhythmias, heart failure, and death. Advanced cardiac imaging modalities have improved the clinician's ability to detect this disease. The purpose of this review is to discuss the recent evidence of cardiac metabolic imaging as assessed by [18F]FDG PET and [123I]BMIPP SPECT in the evaluation of CS patients. RECENT FINDINGS: [18F]FDG PET is the gold standard to identify myocardial inflammation. [123I]BMIPP SPECT can uncover early myocardial damage as well as advanced stages of CS when fibrosis prevails. In presence of inflammation, myocardial [18F]FDG uptake is increased, but in contrast, BMIPP myocardial uptake is reduced or even suppressed. Thus, a complementary role of cardiac metabolic imaging by [18F]FDG PET and BMIPP SPECT has been proposed to detect the whole spectrum of CS. [18F]FDG PET is considered an important tool to improve the diagnosis and optimize the management of CS. The role of [123I]BMIPP SPECT in diagnosing CS is still under investigation. Further studies are needed to evaluate the clinical utility of combined cardiac metabolic imaging in the diagnosis, prognosis, and for selecting treatments in CS patients.

Worldwide Disparities in Recovery of Cardiac Testing 1 Year Into COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: The extent to which health care systems have adapted to the COVID-19 pandemic to provide necessary cardiac diagnostic services is unknown. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the impact of the pandemic on cardiac testing practices, volumes and types of diagnostic services, and perceived psychological stress to health care providers worldwide. METHODS: The International Atomic Energy Agency conducted a worldwide survey assessing alterations from baseline in cardiovascular diagnostic care at the pandemic's onset and 1 year later. Multivariable regression was used to determine factors associated with procedure volume recovery. RESULTS: Surveys were submitted from 669 centers in 107 countries. Worldwide reduction in cardiac procedure volumes of 64% from March 2019 to April 2020 recovered by April 2021 in high- and upper middle-income countries (recovery rates of 108% and 99%) but remained depressed in lower middle- and low-income countries (46% and 30% recovery). Although stress testing was used 12% less frequently in 2021 than in 2019, coronary computed tomographic angiography was used 14% more, a trend also seen for other advanced cardiac imaging modalities (positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance; 22%-25% increases). Pandemic-related psychological stress was estimated to have affected nearly 40% of staff, impacting patient care at 78% of sites. In multivariable regression, only lower-income status and physicians' psychological stress were significant in predicting recovery of cardiac testing. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiac diagnostic testing has yet to recover to prepandemic levels in lower-income countries. Worldwide, the decrease in standard stress testing is offset by greater use of advanced cardiac imaging modalities. Pandemic-related psychological stress among providers is widespread and associated with poor recovery of cardiac testing.

O Impacto da COVID-19 no Diagnóstico de Doenças Cardíacas na América Latina Uma Subanálise do INCAPS COVID / The Impact of COVID-19 on Diagnosis of Heart Disease in Latin America an INCAPS COVID Sub-analysis

Resumo Fundamento A pandemia de COVID-19 interferiu na prestação de atendimento a doenças cardiovasculares na América Latina. No entanto, o efeito da pandemia nos volumes de procedimentos cardíacos diagnósticos ainda não foi quantificado. Objetivo Avaliar (1) o impacto de COVID-19 nos volumes de diagnóstico cardíaco na América Latina e (2) determinar sua relação com a incidência de casos de COVID-19 e as medidas de distanciamento social. Métodos A International Atomic Energy Agency realizou uma pesquisa mundial avaliando mudanças nos volumes diagnósticos cardíacos decorrentes da COVID-19. Foram obtidos os volumes diagnósticos cardíacos dos locais participantes para março e abril de 2020 e comparados com março de 2019. Foram coletados dados de distanciamento social a partir dos Relatórios de mobilidade da comunidade de Google e a incidência de COVID-19 por país a partir de Our World in Data. Resultados Foram realizadas pesquisas em 194 centros que realizam procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos, em 19 países da América Latina. Em comparação com o mês de março de 2019, os volumes dos procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos diminuíram 36% em março de 2020 e 82% em abril de 2020.As maiores reduções ocorreram em relação aos testes de estresse ecocardiográfico (91%), testes ergométricos de esteira (88%) e escore de cálcio por tomografia computadorizada (87%), com pequenas variações entre as sub-regiões da América Latina. As mudanças em padrões de distanciamento social (p < 0,001) estavam mais fortemente associadas com a redução do volume do que a incidência de COVID-19 (p = 0,003). Conclusões A COVID-19 foi associada a uma redução significativa de procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos na América Latina, a qual foi mais relacionada ao distanciamento social do que ao aumento da incidência da COVID-19. São necessários melhor equilíbrio e timing de medidas de distanciamento social e planejamento para manter o acesso ao atendimento médico durante um surto pandêmico, especialmente em regiões com alta mortalidade cardiovascular.

Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the delivery of care for cardiovascular diseases in Latin America. However, the effect of the pandemic on the cardiac diagnostic procedure volumes has not been quantified. Objective To assess (1) the impact of COVID-19 on cardiac diagnostic volumes in Latin America and (2) determine its relationship with COVID-19 case incidence and social distancing measures. Methods The International Atomic Energy Agency conducted a worldwide survey assessing changes in cardiac diagnostic volumes resulting from COVID-19. Cardiac diagnostic volumes were obtained from participating sites for March and April 2020 and compared to March 2019. Social distancing data were collected from Google COVID-19 community mobility reports and COVID-19 incidence per country from the Our World in Data. Results Surveys were conducted in 194 centers performing cardiac diagnostic procedures, in 19 countries in Latin America. Procedure volumes decreased 36% from March 2019 to March 2020, and 82% from March 2019 to April 2020. The greatest decreases occurred in echocardiogram stress tests (91%), exercise treadmill tests (88%), and computed tomography calcium scores (87%), with slight variations between sub-regions of Latin America. Changes in social distancing patterns (p < 0.001) were more strongly associated with volume reduction than COVID-19 incidence (p = 0.003). Conclusions COVID-19 was associated with a significant reduction in cardiac diagnostic procedures in Latin America, which was more related to social distancing than to the COVID-19 incidence. Better balance and timing of social distancing measures and planning to maintain access to medical care is warranted during a pandemic surge, especially in regions with high cardiovascular mortality.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Diagnosis of Heart Disease in Latin America an INCAPS COVID Sub-analysis. / O Impacto da COVID-19 no Diagnóstico de Doenças Cardíacas na América Latina Uma Subanálise do INCAPS COVID.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the delivery of care for cardiovascular diseases in Latin America. However, the effect of the pandemic on the cardiac diagnostic procedure volumes has not been quantified. OBJECTIVE: To assess (1) the impact of COVID-19 on cardiac diagnostic volumes in Latin America and (2) determine its relationship with COVID-19 case incidence and social distancing measures. METHODS: The International Atomic Energy Agency conducted a worldwide survey assessing changes in cardiac diagnostic volumes resulting from COVID-19. Cardiac diagnostic volumes were obtained from participating sites for March and April 2020 and compared to March 2019. Social distancing data were collected from Google COVID-19 community mobility reports and COVID-19 incidence per country from the Our World in Data. RESULTS: Surveys were conducted in 194 centers performing cardiac diagnostic procedures, in 19 countries in Latin America. Procedure volumes decreased 36% from March 2019 to March 2020, and 82% from March 2019 to April 2020. The greatest decreases occurred in echocardiogram stress tests (91%), exercise treadmill tests (88%), and computed tomography calcium scores (87%), with slight variations between sub-regions of Latin America. Changes in social distancing patterns (p < 0.001) were more strongly associated with volume reduction than COVID-19 incidence (p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 was associated with a significant reduction in cardiac diagnostic procedures in Latin America, which was more related to social distancing than to the COVID-19 incidence. Better balance and timing of social distancing measures and planning to maintain access to medical care is warranted during a pandemic surge, especially in regions with high cardiovascular mortality.

FUNDAMENTO: A pandemia de COVID-19 interferiu na prestação de atendimento a doenças cardiovasculares na América Latina. No entanto, o efeito da pandemia nos volumes de procedimentos cardíacos diagnósticos ainda não foi quantificado. OBJETIVO: Avaliar (1) o impacto de COVID-19 nos volumes de diagnóstico cardíaco na América Latina e (2) determinar sua relação com a incidência de casos de COVID-19 e as medidas de distanciamento social. MÉTODOS: A International Atomic Energy Agency realizou uma pesquisa mundial avaliando mudanças nos volumes diagnósticos cardíacos decorrentes da COVID-19. Foram obtidos os volumes diagnósticos cardíacos dos locais participantes para março e abril de 2020 e comparados com março de 2019. Foram coletados dados de distanciamento social a partir dos Relatórios de mobilidade da comunidade de Google e a incidência de COVID-19 por país a partir de Our World in Data. RESULTADOS: Foram realizadas pesquisas em 194 centros que realizam procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos, em 19 países da América Latina. Em comparação com o mês de março de 2019, os volumes dos procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos diminuíram 36% em março de 2020 e 82% em abril de 2020.As maiores reduções ocorreram em relação aos testes de estresse ecocardiográfico (91%), testes ergométricos de esteira (88%) e escore de cálcio por tomografia computadorizada (87%), com pequenas variações entre as sub-regiões da América Latina. As mudanças em padrões de distanciamento social (p < 0,001) estavam mais fortemente associadas com a redução do volume do que a incidência de COVID-19 (p = 0,003). CONCLUSÕES: A COVID-19 foi associada a uma redução significativa de procedimentos diagnósticos cardíacos na América Latina, a qual foi mais relacionada ao distanciamento social do que ao aumento da incidência da COVID-19. São necessários melhor equilíbrio e timing de medidas de distanciamento social e planejamento para manter o acesso ao atendimento médico durante um surto pandêmico, especialmente em regiões com alta mortalidade cardiovascular.

Imágenes híbridas de tomografía por emisión de positrones y resonancia magnética en el diagnóstico de la sarcoidosis cardíaca: experiencia piloto / Hybrid positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in cardiac sarcoidosis diagnosis: a pilot experience

RESUMEN Introducción: Estudios recientes sugieren combinar los hallazgos de la resonancia magnética cardíaca (RMC) y los de la tomografía por emisión de positrones (PET) para incrementar la sensibilidad del diagnóstico de la sarcoidosis cardíaca (SC). Objetivo: Evaluar el valor complementario de la RMC y la PET en el diagnóstico de la SC. Material y métodos: Entre diciembre 2018 y Julio 2020, 6 pacientes (4 hombres y 2 mujeres) fueron referidos a nuestro servicio con sospecha de SC para evaluación de inflamación del miocardio. Se efectuó un estudio de perfusión miocárdica en reposo (13N Amonio) y de 18F-Fluordesoxiglucosa (FDG)-PET para evaluar inflamación y/o fibrosis. A todos los pacientes se les realizó previamente una RMC con gadolinio. Resultados: La edad media fue de 60 ± 9 años. El 50% de los pacientes presentaban antecedente de sarcoidosis sistémica y el otro 50% sospecha de SC aislada. Ninguno de los pacientes presentó inflamación activa del miocardio por PET. Con la combinación de los patrones-PET y el realce por RMC se reclasificó a los pacientes: 50% tuvo menos del 10% de probabilidad de padecer SC y el otro 50% se clasificó como posible. Ninguno de los pacientes recibió tratamiento inmunosupresor. Conclusión: En nuestra población de pacientes con sospecha de SC e inflamación, realizamos un estudio PET luego de la RMC para calcular probabilidades de padecer SC. En ausencia de un patrón oro, se sugiere que el diagnóstico de SC se base en probabilidades de acuerdo a patrones de imágenes y cuadro clínico específicos.

ABSTRACT Background: Recent studies suggest combining the findings of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) and positron emission tomography (PET) to increase sensitivity in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis (CS). Objective: To evaluate the complementary value of CMR and PET in the diagnosis of CS. Methods: From December 2018 to July 2020, 6 patients (4 males and 2 females) with suspected CS were referred to our facility for evaluation of myocardial inflammation. A resting 13N Ammonia myocardial perfusion test and a 18F Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET were performed to evaluate myocardial inflammation and/or fibrosis. All patients had a previous gadoliniumenhanced CMR. Results: The average age was 60 ± 9 years. Fifty percent of the patients had a history of systemic sarcoidosis and the remaining 50% had suspected isolated CS. None of the patients had active myocardial inflammation based on the PET findings. With the combination of PET patterns and enhanced CMR, the patients were reclassified as follows: 50% had less than 10% chance of having CS and the other 50% was classified as possible cases of CS. None of the patients received immunosuppressants. Conclusion: In our patient population with suspected CS and inflammation, we conducted a PET study following a CMR to assess the potential for CS. In the absence of a gold standard, it is suggested that the diagnosis of CS should be based on probabilities according to specific imaging patterns and clinical features.

Imágenes en la amiloidosis cardíaca / Imaging in Cardiac Amyloidosis

RESUMEN La amiloidosis es un desorden sistémico producido por el depósito de fibrillas de proteínas insolubles que se pliegan y depositan en el miocardio. Los pacientes con amiloidosis y compromiso cardíaco tienen mayor mortalidad respecto a pacientes sin compromiso cardíaco. Las dos formas de amiloidosis más prevalentes que se asocian con compromiso cardíaco son la amiloidosis AL, por el depósito de las cadenas livianas de las inmunoglobulinas, y la amiloidosis ATTR, por el depósito de la proteína transtiretina (TTR) en forma mutada o senil. Este artículo tiene el objetivo de revisar las diferentes modalidades de imágenes cardíacas (ecocardiografía, resonancia magnética cardiaca, medicina nuclear y tomografía) que permiten determinar la severidad del compromiso cardíaco en pacientes con amiloidosis, el tipo de amiloidosis y su pronóstico. Finalmente, se sugiere un algoritmo diagnóstico para determinar el compromiso cardíaco en la amiloidosis adaptado a las herramientas diagnósticas disponibles localmente, con un enfoque práctico y clínico.

ABSTRACT Cardiac amyloidosis is a systemic disorder caused by the extracellular deposition of fibrils of insoluble proteins that misfold and deposit in the myocardium. Patients with amyloidosis and cardiac involvement have higher mortality rate than those without cardiac involvement. The two most prevalent types are amyloidosis with cardiac involvement are light-chain amyloidosis (AL) due to immunoglobulin light chain deposition and transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR) due to deposition of mutated or senile forms of the transthyretin (TTR) protein. The aim of this paper is to review the different modalities of cardiac imaging tests (echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear medicine images and computed tomography scan) that can determine the severity of cardiac involvement in patients with amyloidosis, the type of amyloidosis and its prognosis. Finally, a diagnostic algorithm is proposed to determine cardiac involvement in amyloidosis, tailored to the diagnostic tools locally available with a practical and clinical approach.

International Impact of COVID-19 on the Diagnosis of Heart Disease.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has adversely affected diagnosis and treatment of noncommunicable diseases. Its effects on delivery of diagnostic care for cardiovascular disease, which remains the leading cause of death worldwide, have not been quantified. OBJECTIVES: The study sought to assess COVID-19's impact on global cardiovascular diagnostic procedural volumes and safety practices. METHODS: The International Atomic Energy Agency conducted a worldwide survey assessing alterations in cardiovascular procedure volumes and safety practices resulting from COVID-19. Noninvasive and invasive cardiac testing volumes were obtained from participating sites for March and April 2020 and compared with those from March 2019. Availability of personal protective equipment and pandemic-related testing practice changes were ascertained. RESULTS: Surveys were submitted from 909 inpatient and outpatient centers performing cardiac diagnostic procedures, in 108 countries. Procedure volumes decreased 42% from March 2019 to March 2020, and 64% from March 2019 to April 2020. Transthoracic echocardiography decreased by 59%, transesophageal echocardiography 76%, and stress tests 78%, which varied between stress modalities. Coronary angiography (invasive or computed tomography) decreased 55% (p < 0.001 for each procedure). In multivariable regression, significantly greater reduction in procedures occurred for centers in countries with lower gross domestic product. Location in a low-income and lower-middle-income country was associated with an additional 22% reduction in cardiac procedures and less availability of personal protective equipment and telehealth. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 was associated with a significant and abrupt reduction in cardiovascular diagnostic testing across the globe, especially affecting the world's economically challenged. Further study of cardiovascular outcomes and COVID-19-related changes in care delivery is warranted.

Isquemia miocárdica sin lesiones coronarias obstructivas: MINOCA-INOCA: Revisión para la toma de decisiones GREECO (Grupo de Estudio de Enfermedades Coronarias) / Myocardial ischemia without coronary obstructions: MINOCA-INOCA. Review for decision making

Una de cada 4 coronariografías realizadas por isquemia miocárdica presenta lesiones menores al 50% Este dato desencadenó un creciente interés en la comunidad médica. La Sociedad Americana de Cardiología publicó recientemente un artículo que describe la posición consensuada de un grupo de expertos sobre la fisiopatología, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de esta entidad. Nuestro trabajo refleja una revisión narrativa y la posición de un grupo de expertos pertenecientes a diferentes instituciones con servicios de Cardiología jerarquizados. Aborda aspectos fisiopatológicos y diagnósticos para comprender el enfoque actual del tratamiento, tanto en pacientes que ingresan con diagnóstico de MINOCA (infa rto de miocardio con lesiones angiográficas no graves) o de INOCA (angina e isquemia demostradas, pero sin lesiones coronarias que justifiquen este síndrome).

One in every four coronarographies performed to study myocardial ischemia shows coronary angiographic stenosis less than 50%. This data triggered an increasing interest in the medical community. The American Society of Cardiology recently published a position paper about the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of this entity. Our group performed a narrative review reflecting the opinion of cardiology experts from different centers in Argentina. It aims physiopatologic and diagnostic aspect to understand the current approach in patients with MINOCA (myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries) e INOCA (demonstrated angina and ischemia but without coronary lesions that justify this syndrome).

[Myocardial ischemia without coronary obstructions: MINOCA-INOCA. Review for decision making]. / Isquemia miocárdica sin lesiones coronarias obstructivas: MINOCA-INOCA. Revisión para la toma de decisiones.

One in every four coronarographies performed to study myocardial ischemia shows coronary angiographic stenosis less than 50%. This data triggered an increasing interest in the medical community. The American Society of Cardiology recently published a position paper about the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of this entity. Our group performed a narrative review reflecting the opinion of cardiology experts from different centers in Argentina. It aims physiopatologic and diagnostic aspect to understand the current approach in patients with MINOCA (myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries) e INOCA (demonstrated angina and ischemia but without coronary lesions that justify this syndrome).

Una de cada 4 coronariografías realizadas por isquemia miocárdica presenta lesiones menores al 50% Este dato desencadenó un creciente interés en la comunidad médica. La Sociedad Americana de Cardiología publicó recientemente un artículo que describe la posición consensuada de un grupo de expertos sobre la fisiopatología, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de esta entidad. Nuestro trabajo refleja una revisión narrativa y la posición de un grupo de expertos pertenecientes a diferentes instituciones con servicios de Cardiología jerarquizados. Aborda aspectos fisiopatológicos y diagnósticos para comprender el enfoque actual del tratamiento, tanto en pacientes que ingresan con diagnóstico de MINOCA (infa rto de miocardio con lesiones angiográficas no graves) o de INOCA (angina e isquemia demostradas, pero sin lesiones coronarias que justifiquen este síndrome).

Anatomic or functional testing in stable patients with suspected CAD: contemporary role of cardiac CT in the ISCHEMIA trial era.

One of the foundations of the management of patients with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD) is to avoid unnecessary invasive coronary angiography (ICA) referrals. However, the diagnostic yield of ICA following abnormal conventional stress testing is low. The ability of ischemia testing to predict subsequent myocardial infarction and death is currently being challenged, and more than half of cardiac events among stable patients with suspected CAD occur in those with normal functional tests. The optimal management of patients with stable CAD remains controversial and ischemia-driven interventions, though improving anginal symptoms, have failed to reduce the risk of hard cardiovascular events. In this context, there is an ongoing debate whether the initial diagnostic test among patients with stable suspected CAD should be a functional test or coronary computed tomography angiography. Aside from considering the specific characteristics of individual patients and local availability and conditions, the choice of the initial test relates to whether the objective concerns its role as gatekeeper for ICA, prognosis, or treatment decision-making. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide a contemporary overview of these issues and discuss the emerging role of CCTA as the upfront imaging tool for most patients with suspected CAD.